Death is an unavoidable aspect of life. While society aims to protect children from discussion of death, they are frequently exposed to this topic in the early childhood years. Young children learn about dying through the deaths of those they know such as family members and pets or through media such as movies, video games, and books (Lee et al., 2009). In animated children’s films alone, death occurred in 75% of films (Bridgewater et al., 2021). Even though children are exposed to death, adults often avoid discussing the topic with them because they feel that children are unable to handle such knowledge (Schoen et al., 2004; Mahon et al., 1999). Research not only shows that children are capable of understanding death (Talwar et al., 2011), but that children are curious about death and have many questions worth discussing with adults (Gutiérrez et al., 2014).

Children’s exposure to death is relevant in today’s context. Our population is aging and deaths impacting children are often of older, loved adults, such as a grandparent (United Nations, 2017). The COVID-19 pandemic had national and worldwide death tolls reported daily and many children are in families that have been directly impacted by the pandemic in some way, either by the illness or death of a family member, loss or change in work, or the move to online learning for part of their schooling (Barnyak et al., 2021). Most recently, in the United States, the tragic school shootings in Uvalde, Texas and Nashville, Tennessee have again put death front and center in conversations taking place around children. While young children may not read the news, they hear their families discussing the events and are often part of school communities practicing lock down drills and increasing security to keep children safe. In 2020, more Americans died from gun-related injuries than in any previous year (Gramlich, 2022). While most children’s direct experience with death will most likely be from a loved one (e.g., parent, grandparent) (Corr, 2010), it is becoming more likely they may be impacted by other tragic deaths occurring in society. With an increase in violence and the average age of our population, it is imperative that parents and teachers have ways to support children in processing death. Not only does providing support to children help them during childhood but it prepares them to process traumatic events and emotions throughout their lives (Siegl & Bryson, 2011).

Despite children’s exposure to death, most adults attempt to protect children from content that includes death (Gutiérrez et al., 2014). This happens at home and in schools. A study examining parents’ favorite books to read to their children, found that death was depicted in only 3% of the books (Rosengren et al., 2014). In schools, teacher-led lessons or conversations about death are rarely part of the curriculum unless a public trauma or natural disaster necessitates those conversations (Osvath, 2020). Yet, research highlights that we should be educating children about death before such events happen (Busch & Kimble, 2001). When adults are not honest with children about what death means or why someone might have died, it often results in confusion for children who at times may wonder if they did something that led to the death or if they might die soon (Hunter & Smith, 2008). As children begin to better understand the concept of death, their fear of it decreases (Slaughter & Griffiths, 2007). Teaching children how to think about traumatic events and emotions supports them when experiencing difficult situations throughout their entire life (Sigel & Bryson, 2011).

When parents, caregivers, and teachers do plan to discuss difficult topics, such as death, with a child or children, they often look for a book to support the conversation. Given the importance of talking with children about death, we wondered what children’s books were available on the topic and how varied the situations were within them. We also aimed to understand how grief was represented in children’s literature. We set out to investigate multiple questions: Which children’s books are available on this topic? How does the content of available books align with what we know about children’s development? Are we seeing representations of death from violence? This study explores children’s literature on death and dying written for early childhood, ages three to eight years.

Review of the Literature

In America, children grow up in an environment that deemphasizes grief and denies the inevitability of death (Willis, 2002). Death is a complex concept, it includes emotions along with cultural, religious, and social beliefs (Slaughter, 2005). However, research shows that children can discuss the topic and understand the concept (Talwar et al., 2011). Further, children who have personal experiences with death are able to have advanced understandings of the concept (Bonoti et al., 2013; Hunter & Smith, 2008). In looking at loss experienced by children, children are most likely to experience the death of an adult in their life such as a parent, grandparent, or aunt and uncle (Corr, 2010). However, children also experience death of siblings, friends, classmates, and animals such as a beloved pet or even a favorite animal at the zoo (Corr, 2010).

Understanding death involves understanding multiple aspects of it, including universality, or the understanding that all living things die; irreversibility, or the understanding that once a living thing dies, its physical body cannot come back to life; and nonfunctionality, or the understanding that life-defining functions cease when someone dies. Most kindergarteners understand each of these components, but they may not have a mature understanding of all three components (Speece & Brent, 1992). Speece and Brent (1992) also found that the process of coming to understand death continues at least through age 10. Universality tends to be the first concept that is understood followed by irreversibility and nonfunctionality being understood concurrently after this (Speece & Brent, 1992).

According to Willis (2002), children first start to understand ideas of grief and death around age 3 or 4 years old. By age 5, most children know that death involves bodily processes stopping and by age 6, they comprehend that death can be caused by many factors, not just old age (Menendez et al., 2020). Even though children begin to understand death at an early age, it is adults, such as parents and teachers, who feel uncomfortable discussing death with children or do not want to approach the topic due to their own trauma around events (McGovern & Barry, 2000). However, this attempt at protection denies children information and rituals related to death and fosters confusion, ignorance and a lack of trust which can impact their bereavement experiences (Paul, 2019).

Children are not only able to understand the concept of death, but they can benefit from a conversation about it (Talwar et al., 2011). In fact, insufficient communication about death is the most influential situational factor that causes children to struggle to resolve feelings of grief and adjust to a loss (Talwar et al., 2011). When discussing death with children, explicit language is essential. Adults can make references to death relative to the age of the child, but it is advised to avoid the use of euphemisms in these discussions (Willis, 2002). For example, if parents use terms like “sleeping,” “left us,” “passed away,” or “gone on a trip,” this will only serve to confuse children because sleep is associated with waking up and leaving is associated with coming back (Talwar et al., 2011). Children do not yet understand the abstract ways in which these other words are used with death. Additionally, death is irreversible and final, and these phrases do not convey that truth (Willis, 2002). Schonfeld (2019) notes that children who understand “(a) death is irreversible, (b) all life functions end completely at the time of death, (c) everything that is alive eventually dies, and (d) there are physical reasons someone dies” are better positioned to cope with the death of a loved one (p. 1).

It is through direct conversations with adults that children come to understand unobservable occurrences like death and this communication with adults can build the basis of a child’s beliefs on death and the afterlife (Menendez et al., 2020). When a loved one in a child’s life dies, open communication between parent(s) and children supports children in coping with the loss (Field et al., 2014). Research shows that children benefit not only from having these conversations at home, but within the school setting. It has been suggested that the topic of death be included in school curriculums to facilitate social-emotional development and prevent psychological problems from arising (Talwar et al., 2011). While children’s discourse might sound a bit different from adults, conversations are helpful for children as they engage in sense making around the concept of death.

In schools, when teachers were asked about supporting children experiencing grief, they noted they felt unprepared (Lekovich & Duvshan, 2021). In supporting children who had lost a parent, teachers noted they felt helpless and confused (Levkovich & Elyoseph, 2021). Research has shown the importance of teacher support in responding to the needs of grieving children (Lowton & Higginosn, 2003). Awareness of texts that can guide teachers and which may offer additional resources may be one way to better equip them to support students in their classroom impacted by death.

One helpful strategy for supporting children’s conceptualization of death is through the use of picturebooks. Books can provide families with the language to explain tough topics. Books tend to appropriately consider a child’s feelings and their emotional and intellectual development (Arruda-Colli et al., 2017). Books on the topic can be used as a mirror, to support a child in better understanding a situation they experienced or as a window, a view into a death that they have not been directly impacted by (Glazier & Seo, 2005). Glazier and Seo (2005) note the importance of children seeing themselves in texts and the experiences of others. Family members and teachers may struggle to raise difficult subjects like death and because of this, they tend to err on the side of silence. Picturebooks can be used as an avenue to start what may feel like a difficult conversation with a child. Books on the topic are beneficial for children with or without direct experience with death.

Wiseman (2013) examined dozens of picturebooks on death published from 2001 to 2011. While she found books that could be potential resources for children, she also noted that more research should be done on understanding how picturebooks can be a way to support children as they grieve (Wiseman, 2013). Our research is meant to build on the work of Wiseman by examining more recently published texts and seeing if the content of these books aligns with what is developmentally appropriate for children. We also sought to understand the diversity of the texts in regard to being used as windows and mirrors for children (Glazier & Seo, 2005; Mattix & Crawford, 2011).

Lee et al. (2014) explored the cultural differences between the discussion of death in children’s books from Western Europe and East Asia. The authors purposefully left out texts from the United States (U.S.) and focused specifically on Europe for the Western perspective since many U.S. children’s books include multiple cultures. They found that literature from East Asia focuses on the naturalistic elements of death and provides causal explanations, which is in part because death is a taboo subject in this context. In contrast, Western European literature had more supernatural elements and focused on the nonfunctionality aspect of death, rather than the inevitable and irreversible nature of it (Lee et al., 2014). Since it is important for children to see themselves represented in the texts they read, especially if it is a book covering a tough subject like death, it is necessary for there to be texts on death and dying that represent a wide range of cultural perspectives (Glazier & Seo, 2005).

Methods

This study uses a content analysis design to understand the ways death and dying are represented in books designed for young children. To be as comprehensive as possible in sampling, qualifying picturebooks were identified through library databases (e.g. university library, public library) and online searches (e.g. Google, Amazon). Search terms, “children’s literature on death,” “children’s books on death,” “children’s literature on dying,” and “children’s books on dying,” were used along with the specified publication dates (2005–2020), and target age range (ages 3–8) for all searches we were able to refine. The target age range was chosen because age 3 is when children developmentally begin to understand the early concepts of death that someone is gone yet might still think it is temporary (Willis, 2002). Age 8 was the end of our range because of the exclusive focus on picturebooks in this study.

The sample was gathered using the criteria depicted in Fig. 1. Our initial search resulted in 183 unique texts being identified. All books selected for analysis met industry standards, with high production value and professional illustrations. Self-published books were not included in this study to ensure uniform quality. Some texts were unavailable due to recent publishing date or lack of availability from the university library system, San Diego Public Library, Multnomah County Library (a system of 19 library branches in and around Portland, OR) and accessible bookstores. Therefore, 98 texts were excluded. Text availability was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. After reading the available texts, 11 were excluded due to topic. For example, one text discussed a mother being sick with cancer and recovering, but did not include the topic of death (Sliwerski & Song, 2017). Our final sample included 74 texts.

Fig. 1
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Process of book selection

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Data Analysis

There were four phases of analysis. First, each book was read to ensure that it discussed death or dying and met our sampling criteria. Each book was then reread and coded using a code system informed from our framing. Codes included type of book (e.g., picture, poetry), type of characters (e.g., humans, animals, both humans and animals, or other), and character background (e.g., type of animal, age of character). As a note, all characters in the text were listed. We next coded for the character who died and cause of death, if noted in the text (e.g., illness, accident). Wanting to understand the language used around death, we also noted the particular words that were used or not used in the books. We specifically coded for the presence of the words death, died, and dying. In addition to coding for those three vocabulary words, we recorded the ways in which death was mentioned in the text. Drawing on Speece and Brent (1992), we examined text language in relation to supporting children’s understanding that death is universal, irreversible, and that it means humans are no longer able to function. Books were also coded as having a biological or religious explanation of the death. A yes/no code was used to indicate the presence of resources with sub-codes noting the type of resource: parent/teacher resources, the presence of a glossary, the presence of coping activities, and the presence of additional resources. Finally, each coder made notes about the book generally, to identify books thought to be the most beneficial resources when looking at the story as a whole. In total, we had 15 distinct codes. There were eight main codes and seven subcodes, including three language subcodes and four resources subcodes.

Prior to coding the entire sample, 20% of the sample (15 texts) were coded for inter-rater reliability. While many of the codes were objective, noting presence or absence, there were some which were more subjective. For example, the language in a few of the texts made it a bit more difficult to code as a biological or religious explanation of death. These differences, while rare, were discussed until agreement was reached and additional information was added to the code book to further explain the decision line between biological and religious. Once inter-rater reliability was reached, we independently coded the remaining sample.

Findings

The following section reports our findings from the content analysis of 74 picturebooks for young children. We first discuss the character(s) that died in the text and how the death occurred. Next, we look at the diversity of characters. We then turn to a discussion of the language used in the analyzed texts and how that language aligns with what we know about children’s development of concepts related to death. Last, we note the resources available in books and highlight strengths of texts.

Who Died and How?

Understanding the importance of texts being able to serve as both windows and mirrors for children (Glazier & Seo, 2005; Mattix & Crawford, 2011), we examined the character who died. Each book was coded for who died or is dying within the story. 47% of books included a human death. Most books discussing the death of a human portrayed someone older like a grandma or grandpa dying. Of the books we read, seven books included a mother dying and three books included a father dying. Three books showed the main character’s brother dying. However, none of the 74 books we coded showed someone’s sister dying. More than a quarter of texts, 33%, had an animal dying such as a family dog or an endangered species.

Anthropomorphism was also used in several texts with an animal character dying. For example, in one text, a goose and turtle become friends and the turtle dies. Other living things such as trees and flowers died in 7% of the books. In nine texts, various people or living things died. For example, a text on Día de Los Muertos included the discussion of multiple family members who had died. Two of the analyzed texts discussed dying and grief in general without naming a particular living thing who died. Our sample highlights the need for texts that diversify the human characters who are dying.

Books were coded based on the ways in which characters died in the books, including by old age, illness, accident (e.g., car, bike), violence, or did not say. Books could list more than one way that character(s) died. Of the 74 books we coded, 35%, or 26 books, portrayed a character dying of old age. In total, 31% (n = 23) of the books we coded did not say how the character died; 15% (n = 11) mentioned a death due to a car or bike accident;  and 13% (n = 10) mentioned a death due to illness. Finally, 6% (n = 4) mentioned a death due to violence (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
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Ways that characters died in books

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Character Diversity

Of the 74 books we coded, 49 books contained human characters. These books were coded for diversity, which we defined as having non-White characters. This general definition was used since many of the texts did not explicitly note the race or culture of characters for us to categorize more specifically. Of these 49 books, 49% (n=24), contained diverse characters. The more recently published books tended to feature more diverse characters than the older books. Since this was a yes or no system of coding, it was difficult to distinguish the specifics of diversity in these books. For example, if a person of color was featured in the illustrations of the book, even if they were a minor character in the story, the story was coded as having diversity despite, perhaps, the main character being White.

Language Used

Our second research questions asked: How does the content of available books align with what we know about children’s development? To investigate this alignment, we analyzed the words used in the text to describe death. The words related to death in these books were also coded. Over half of the books used vague language (e.g., lost, sleep) rather than direct language to describe death. Of the 74 books, two books (3%) used all three terms (death, dying, and died), four books (5%) used the terms death and died, and two books (3%) used the terms dying and died (see Fig. 3). In our sample, two books (3%) exclusively used the word “death” and 24 books (32%) exclusively used the word “died.” The word dying was not used exclusively in any text (see Fig. 4). Specific phrases regarding death were also noted to understand the type of language being used in addition to specific words.

Fig. 3
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Words related to death used in books

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Fig. 4
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Exclusive words related to death used in books

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Multiple texts used abstract or vague language to describe death to children, not aligning with the clear language that supports their development and often furthering misconceptions about death. For example, one text, My Father’s Arms are a Boat (Lunde, 2013), was about a child whose mother died and it uses the vague and confusing language of sleep for death. The text noted:

“Is Mommy asleep?” I ask.

“Mommy’s asleep,” says Daddy.

“She’ll never wake up again?” I ask.

No, not where she is now.’

This contrasts with a text, Death is Stupid (Higginbothom, 2020), with features clear language that aligns with supporting children’s understanding of death. In the book, a young boy’s gramma dies and he is processing the death. The other characters in the book make comments to him and he responds or share his thoughts with the reader. In one part, he combats the misconception that someone who died just falls asleep forever:

Young boy: “But beware of the lies.”

Other character: “She is only sleeping.”

Young boy: “Don’t say that to me. Sleep is what I do and I wake up every morning. My gramma isn’t asleep. She died.”

This excerpt provides an example of clear language around death and dying for children and illustrates why the first text mentioned uses language that is unhelpful and potentially damaging for children. Table 1 provides additional examples of straightforward and vague language used across texts in our sample. We found the books in our sample either used clear, direct language or vague language.

Table 1 Straightforward language vs. vague language
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Resources in the Books

Since death is such a heavy topic, books were also coded for whether or not they contained additional resources to support those reading the books. Additional resources could include parent or teacher resources, glossaries, coping activities or additional notes. For example, one text included a note to parents at the end with sections on explaining death to a child, common emotions, and behaviors, reinforcing family connection and reassurances, and practical coping techniques (Maier, 2012). In the text, Something Happened in Our Town, a book about a police shooting, the authors provide vocabulary words with child-friendly definitions to support adults in talking with children about the topics of the text (Celano et al., 2018). Additionally, the book provides possible questions a child might ask with potential answers parents may use (Celano et al., 2018). In Death is Stupid (Higginbotham, 2020), the book ends with the main character saying, “Wanna know how to keep someone and, at the same time, let them go?” followed by a section on activities children can engage in to remember the person who died (p. 56). Of the 74 books we coded, only 22% (n = 16) contained one or more of these additional resources. Meanwhile, 78% (n = 58) of the books coded did not contain any additional resources to support adults using the texts with children.

Discussion

The purposes of this study were to understand which children’s books for 3–8-year-olds were available on the topic of death and dying, examine how the content of available books aligns with what we know about children’s developmental understanding of death, and to see if there were representations of death from violence, given our current context. We analyzed 74 books on the topic and found that there are clear representations of death in books for young children, but these texts are in the minority. Numerous books we examined on death did not use language that aligns with children’s conceptual understandings of death. What is promising, however, is that there were texts that can be used to support children in understanding death and grief using clear language that aligns with their development.

Our study indicates that there needs to be more books on sibling death, especially the death of a sister because this is a gap in the market. It would be helpful for children experiencing the death of a sibling to have a book resource that mirrors their situation as closely as possible. Also, more books on parental death would be useful, especially the death of a father. Glazier and Seo (2005) discuss the importance of having texts that serve as windows and mirrors for children. We did find areas where an increase in texts could create more mirrors for children who experience the loss of a loved one. In seeking texts that align with a child’s situation, the texts could use more explicit diversity. It is so important to see one self represented in books read. If there is not much diversity in these picturebooks on death, it can be harder for children to relate to the main characters and use the books as a form of support.

Our sample also highlighted the small number of books portraying a death from violence. We are living in a time when, unfortunately, violent deaths from police brutality, school shootings, and war permeate the news. In our sample, only four books focused on death from violence. Two books portrayed death from war violence, one was a story of racial violence, and the fourth book was about a fox killing a chicken. It may be useful for there to be more children’s books written on violent deaths in a sensitive, supportive manner. We think it would be particularly helpful for teachers and families to have a book that could be read to support students in discussing deaths that occur in school shootings.

One important finding was that across texts we found some authors used vague and abstract language that could make it difficult for children to understand a character had died and that death is irreversible. To avoid this confusion for young children, we need more explicit language in children’s books on death. When texts note a character who has died “fell asleep”, it can cause sleep problems for children as they may begin to associate sleep with never coming back and might begin to fear they, too, might not wake up (Talwar et al., 2011). It is important that available texts work to ease grief and fear for children rather than exacerbating or creating it.

Our study is limited by the small sample size, since we only examined 74 texts. The sample size was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic as library and bookstore shutdowns impacted our ability to access certain texts. Despite these challenges, the findings from this study do have implications for practice. We were able to find books that clearly discussed death and dying using explicit language and included different characters (e.g., grandmother, animal) dying. We also highlight texts that provide helpful ideas around how children might process grief or a loved one might support a bereaved child. Table 2 lists recommended texts to use with young children when discussing death and dying and notes the strengths of the text. The books in the table are exemplars from our sample.

Table 2 Recommended books
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Given the size of our study, future research is needed to further examine the diversity in texts, specifically the cultural representations of death and grieving. Lee et al. (2014) examined culture variances in children’s literature but only looked at Western European and East Asian texts. It would be helpful to conduct a similar study examining texts from the United States. While we make some book recommendations, we do not have information on how children would engage with these books. Further research needs to be conducted examining how children respond to books with clear language and which texts are most helpful in different situations. Future studies will also need to examine how to best use these texts in classrooms with children and support teachers in orchestrating text-based discussions on the topic of death.

Loved ones in children’s lives, including grandparents and pets, will continue to die as they grow old or ill. Additionally, as violence increases in our society (Gramlich, 2022), it is possible children will be impacted by additional types of death at a young age. Talking with children about death is imperative to their emotional development (Siegel & Bryson, 2011). Picturebooks are one way in which families and teachers can begin to discuss the topic of death with children. We hope, that while families and teachers are often hesitant to talk to children about death, they will be less hesitant to read a book on the topic that might create a softer entry into a conversation. This research highlights considerations when selecting a text about death to share with a child and makes recommendations on the types of texts that are helpful to use.