1 Introduction

Cultural capital, according to Bourdieu’s conceptual framework, constitutes a complex of sociocultural signals, connections, preferences, intellectual characteristics, modes of action, goods, and competencies (Bourdieu, 1989; Košutić, 2017). This concept plays a pivotal role in the sociology of education, wherein the possession of cultural capital paves the way for social mobility and changes in hierarchical status (Hultqvist & Lidegran, 2021). In this context, the educational system functions as a mechanism for transforming cultural capital into academic success (Bourdieu, 2011). It is crucial to emphasize that the successful adaptation of migrants to new educational environments largely depends on the level and structure of their cultural capital (Bierwiaczonek & Waldzus, 2016). The contemporary form of migration constitutes a dynamic process of maintaining interpersonal, social, political, and cultural connections within migrant groups, as well as between migrants and the host community, known as transnationalism (Lima, 2010). Within this context, the accumulation of cultural capital during migration involves the assimilation of various embodied cultural traits and cultural competencies (Waters, 2008). Cultural integration, a key aspect of this transnational dynamic, implies not only the interaction of migrant cultures with the culture of the host society but also with various ethnic cultures coexisting in the receiving country (Tsapenko & Grishin, 2018). The cultural capital of migrants catalyzes cultural exchange, fostering international education and expediting integration into interethnic discourse (Park, 2021). At the same time, there are complexities of social and spatial nature in the trajectories of migrants’ integration into national and transnational spaces (Barglowski, 2019). In the context of sociocultural integration into a new cultural environment, the process of acculturation for many individuals may depend on four strategies: integration, assimilation, segregation, and marginalization (Alencar & Deuze, 2017; Berry, 2003, 2017).

There exists a direct correlation between the academic performance of migrants and their cultural capital, academic talent, and acculturation dynamics (Berry, 2005). Diverse educational achievements of students from various ethnic and national cultures contribute to an uneven distribution of cultural capital within the global education system (Kim, 2016).

In the context of the cultural adaptation of migrants, virtual reality (VR) presents innovative opportunities for the effective integration of cultural capital into the educational process, as it can create immersive educational scenarios reflecting cultural diversity and providing students with a realistic experience of interacting with various cultural contexts (Kizgin et al., 2020). Virtual educational platforms based on VR can simulate situations encompassing a wide range of cultural aspects – from linguistic peculiarities to customs and traditions. This not only encourages active student participation in the learning process but also contributes to the development of their cultural competence, which, in turn, may enhance their success in a new educational context (Akdere et al., 2021). VR also eliminates geographical and social limitations, offering migrants the opportunity to interact in a virtual environment, which is particularly crucial for those facing difficulties in overcoming physical barriers and establishing social connections (Tikhonova et al., 2020). Furthermore, virtual reality can provide migrants with controlled environments where they can gradually acclimate to a new culture, thereby reducing acculturative stress and creating conditions for a smooth adaptation process (Lilla et al., 2021). The use of VR in education contributes not only to the enrichment of cultural knowledge but also to the formation of a positive educational experience and the integration of migrants into a new educational and sociocultural environment. Ultimately, this integration may contribute to the improvement of their academic performance (Akdere et al., 2021; Daniela & Aierken, 2020).

This study focuses on the acculturation strategies of migrants, taking into consideration their interrelation with academic performance, within the context of the application of virtual reality in multicultural education. The paper also covers rapid globalization processes in culture, international education systems, tendencies of cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism in modern society and global migration processes, poorly studied features of global cultural capital formation, and the integration of migrant students into a multicultural environment. Since the acculturation of migrant students is related to their academic self-esteem, it is necessary to identify the most relevant strategy for the acculturation of international students that can increase their academic performance, expand their worldview, and set them on a cosmopolitan vector of development for global capital formation (Lilla et al., 2021).

Thus, the primary focus of the research is directed toward examining the role of VR technology in the educational process and its potential to create a conducive environment for the adaptation and improvement of academic performance among migrant students.

Primary Research Question: "Can the application of virtual reality technology in the cultural education of migrants positively influence their acculturation process in the host society and contribute to the improvement of academic performance, thereby reducing acculturation stress?" This hypothesis is grounded in the belief that VR tools offer extensive opportunities to create a welcoming educational environment for migrants in universities, particularly considering the individual characteristics of each student during the adaptation process (Tikhonova et al., 2020).

1.1 Literature review

Features of the global cultural capital formation in the context of acculturation and integration of migrant students have been little studied in Russian and world scientific literature. Most of the research is aimed at understanding cultural capital in general (Bennett & Silva, 2011) and issues of the cultural identity of individuals within migration processes (Juang & Syed, 2019; Neto, 2021; Tsapenko & Grishin, 2018). The reason for the relatively poor study of this issue can be attributed to the disunity of most social groups and strata as well as a poorly developed structure, through which cultural capital can be converted into an economic one in the international labor market (Waters, 2008). Due to the constant change in migration flows, it is difficult to predict how much a particular socio-ethnic group will be able to integrate into a new culture without losing the characteristics of its culture, what the level of migration stress will be, and how it will affect the socio-cultural worldview of individuals (Bhugra et al., 2021).

Different researchers evaluate the components of acculturation differently. Mendenhall and Oddou believe that acculturation consists of three components: emotions, behavior, and cognition (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). Ward and Kennedy divide acculturation into two levels: psychological adaptation and socio-cultural adaptation (Ward & Kennedy, 1993). Chinese scientist Chen Xiaoyi suggests that acculturation can be expressed as material culture, institutional culture, and spiritual culture (Chen, 2005). In terms of content, many scientists focus on the analysis and research of acculturation models. Generally, these models can be of five types: the U-shaped model, the Monomyph model (the call of adventure/the Hero’s Journey), the Surprise and Rational Search model, Kim’s adaptation model, and Davis’s acculturation model (Ward & Geeraert, 2016). The research orientation and patterns of acculturation studies mostly rely on the Western perspective of theoretical and empirical research (Graves, 1967; Redfield et al., 1936; Sam et al., 2006; Searle & Ward, 1990).

The academic achievements of migrant students are determined by the accessibility or inaccessibility of personal cultural capital and the ability to acculturate on its basis (Shah & Hussain, 2021). Achievement scores, even if they seem objective, actually reflect and contribute to economic and cultural inequalities, which can hinder integration processes (Klimczuk, 2014). Cultural integration in the modern world is partially realized through the “clash of civilizations” within the country through the import/export of various cultures through migration (Lacroix, 2010). Academic migration affects various components of society and can cause problems related to the adaptation of migrant students to a new cultural environment (Bozdağ, 2020). Interaction between migrants and host society leads to cultural changes, promotes healthy relationships between residents and migrant communities, and accelerates cultural integration (Gavrilova & Zakaurtseva, 2016). As the number and quality of new social contacts, the host country’s language proficiency, and the length of residence increase, students begin to focus on the local mainstream culture of the host society (Mohanty et al., 2018).

The process of assimilation into the host culture is indicated as the most common cultural change of the minority (migrants). Assimilation is characterized by the loss of almost all markers of migrants’ authentic culture such as language, food, customs, and traditions as well as religious characteristics. It makes the ethnic culture of migrants almost indistinguishable from the culture of the new society (Rudmin, 2003). Separation is a cultural division when people reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their own. Separation occurs when migrants, who value their historical culture, strive to preserve their authenticity, completely refuse to perceive and cognize the culture of the host society, and shut themselves off from it (Sam & Berry, 2010).

Marginalization occurs when migrants cease to identify themselves with their authentic ethnic culture and at the same time refuse to perceive the host culture. This acculturation strategy reflects the minimal interest of migratory groups in preserving their cultural heritage or connection with the dominant culture (Behara et al., 2018). Sociocultural integration is defined as a form of cultural exchange that occurs when an individual or group adapts to the traditions and beliefs of another group without sacrificing their own. It is integration that is a prerequisite for the formation of a multicultural society (Cheung & Llu, 2000).

Despite the effectiveness of virtual computer technology in various areas of society, it is still not a common means of providing support and assistance to people in need. Social anxiety disorders, etymologically related to crisis changes in living conditions, which include academic migration, are becoming increasingly common, along with neurotic disorders and depressions (Tikhonova et al., 2020). One of the tools of psychological help for people under traumatic stress can be VR (Herrero & Lorenzo, 2020). The effectiveness of virtual reality systems to help people with panic disorders, and to overcome the effects of prolonged stressful situations has already been proven (Aysina et al., 2017; Bordnick et al., 2005).

Features of the global cultural capital formation in the context of acculturation and integration of migrant students have been little studied in Russian and world scientific literature. Most of the research is aimed at understanding cultural capital in general (Bennett & Silva, 2011) and issues of the cultural identity of individuals within migration processes (Neto, 2021; Tsapenko & Grishin, 2018). The reason for the relatively poor study of this issue can be attributed to the disunity of most social groups and strata as well as a poorly developed structure, through which cultural capital can be converted into an economic one in the international labor market (Waters, 2008). Due to the constant change in migration flows, it is difficult to predict how much a particular socio-ethnic group will be able to integrate into a new culture without losing the characteristics of its culture, what the level of migration stress will be, and how it will affect the socio-cultural worldview of individuals (Bhugra et al., 2021).

Different researchers evaluate the components of acculturation differently. Mendenhall and Oddou believe that acculturation consists of three components: emotions, behavior, and cognition (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). Ward and Kennedy divide acculturation into two levels: psychological adaptation and socio-cultural adaptation (Ward & Kennedy, 1993). Chinese scientist Chen Xiaoyi suggests that acculturation can be expressed as material culture, institutional culture, and spiritual culture (Chen, 2005). In terms of content, many scientists focus on the analysis and research of acculturation models. Generally, these models can be of five types: the U-shaped model, the Monomyph model (the call of adventure/the Hero’s Journey), the Surprise and Rational Search model, Kim’s adaptation model, and Davis’s acculturation model (Ward & Geeraert, 2016). The research orientation and patterns of acculturation studies mostly rely on the Western perspective of theoretical and empirical research (Bornstein, 2017; Fang et al., 2016; Graves, 1967; Redfield et al., 1936; Sam et al., 2006; Searle & Ward, 1990). Within the research milieu, emphasis is also placed on the diversity of acculturation strategies adopted by migrants. In the work of Alencar and Deuze, various acculturation strategies are examined, including integration, assimilation, segregation, and marginalization. The study underscores the importance of selecting an effective strategy while pointing out the potential challenges and advantages of each approach in an educational context (Alencar & Deuze, 2017). S. Karim’s research provides a comprehensive review of shifts in migrants’ acculturation strategies in the conditions of contemporary global society. The authors highlight a transition from traditional strategies to more flexible and integrative approaches, underscoring the significance of adaptability and the ability to navigate change for successful sociocultural adaptation (Karim, 2021). In P. Genkova’s study, the analysis explores how various cultural factors, such as individualistic and collectivistic values, influence the choice of acculturation strategies. The authors note that these factors shape preferences in strategies and impact the success of migrants’ sociocultural adaptation (Genkova, 2021). However, research conducted by K. Fu and M. Gonzalez-Loureiro reveals existing gaps in the literature on migrants’ acculturation strategies. The authors highlight limited attention to individual and collective strategies, especially in the context of evolving migration trends and global challenges. Their studies call for additional research aimed at a deeper understanding of the diversity and effectiveness of acculturation strategies (Fu, 2015; Gonzalez-Loureiro et al., 2015). C. Stephens’ work also analyzes contemporary research on acculturation strategies, identifying gaps in the understanding of the variety of strategies in modern society. The authors emphasize that existing literature does not always account for the dynamics of changes in the sociocultural environment, particularly in the context of technological and social transformations (Stephens, 2016).

The academic achievements of migrant students are determined by the accessibility or inaccessibility of personal cultural capital and the ability to acculturate on its basis (Shah & Hussain, 2021). Achievement scores, even if they seem objective, actually reflect and contribute to economic and cultural inequalities, which can hinder integration processes (Klimczuk, 2014). Cultural integration in the modern world is partially realized through the “clash of civilizations” within the country through the import/export of various cultures through migration (Lacroix, 2010). Academic migration affects various components of society and can cause problems related to the adaptation of migrant students to a new cultural environment (Bozdağ, 2020). Interaction between migrants and host society leads to cultural changes, promotes healthy relationships between residents and migrant communities, and accelerates cultural integration (Gavrilova & Zakaurtseva, 2016). As the number and quality of new social contacts, the host country’s language proficiency, and the length of residence increase, students begin to focus on the local mainstream culture of the host society (Mohanty et al., 2018).

The process of assimilation into the host culture is indicated as the most common cultural change of the minority (migrants). Assimilation is characterized by the loss of almost all markers of migrants’ authentic culture such as language, food, customs, and traditions as well as religious characteristics. It makes the ethnic culture of migrants almost indistinguishable from the culture of the new society (Rudmin, 2003). Separation is a cultural division when people reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their own. Separation occurs when migrants, who value their historical culture, strive to preserve their authenticity, completely refuse to perceive and cognize the culture of the host society, and shut themselves off from it (Sam & Berry, 2010).

Marginalization occurs when migrants cease to identify themselves with their authentic ethnic culture and at the same time refuse to perceive the host culture. This acculturation strategy reflects the minimal interest of migratory groups in preserving their cultural heritage or connection with the dominant culture (Behara et al., 2018). Sociocultural integration is defined as a form of cultural exchange that occurs when an individual or group adapts to the traditions and beliefs of another group without sacrificing their own. It is integration that is a prerequisite for the formation of a multicultural society (Cheung & Llu, 2000).

Despite the effectiveness of virtual computer technology in various areas of society, it is still not a common means of providing support and assistance to people in need. Social anxiety disorders, etymologically related to crisis changes in living conditions, which include academic migration, are becoming increasingly common, along with neurotic disorders and depression (Tikhonova et al., 2020). One of the tools of psychological help for people under traumatic stress can be VR (Herrero & Lorenzo, 2020). The effectiveness of virtual reality systems to help people with panic disorders, and to overcome the effects of prolonged stressful situations has already been proven (Aysina et al., 2017; Bordnick et al., 2005).

The impact of VR on cultural integration and academic performance of students in multicultural educational settings is also discussed in global scholarly research. For instance, in the work of Tikhonova et al., it is noted that the application of virtual reality technology in multicultural education contributes to a profound interaction of migrant students with the local culture. VR is presented in this study as a powerful tool that enables students to immerse themselves in multifaceted cultural scenarios, thereby fostering a rapid and more effective integration into the new society (Tikhonova et al., 2020). Zhang et al. examine the influence of virtual reality on the academic performance of migrants, indicating that the use of VR in educational programs can stimulate interest in learning, enhance material comprehension, and thus contribute to the improvement of academic achievement among migrant students (Zhang et al., 2021). Furthermore, in the work of Gao et al., the role of VR in reducing acculturation-related stress is discussed. The research emphasizes that the virtual environment creates controlled conditions for migrants, allowing them to gradually acclimate to a new culture, thereby contributing to the reduction of acculturation stress (Gao et al., 2021). The study by Kiliçer and Özkal analyzes how the use of VR in the context of cultural education for migrants contributes to the formation and enrichment of their cultural capital. The authors highlight that this technology provides unique opportunities for immersion in diverse cultural contexts, fostering a deeper understanding and assimilation of cultural aspects of the host society (Kiliçer & Özkal, 2022). The use of virtual reality in education as an additional tool to level the stress of adapting to the new educational reality is likely to be a promising way to create comfortable conditions of educational interaction and adaptation for international students.

1.2 Theoretical framework

The theoretical foundation of this study is constructed through a meticulous review of scholarly literature encompassing key concepts critically essential for understanding the formation of global cultural capital, acculturation, and the role of virtual reality (VR) technology in cultural education for migrants.

The study is grounded in the following interrelated concepts:

  • Cultural capital as a tool of social stratification.

Analysis of works by Košutić, Klimczuk, Bourdieu, Silva, Bennett, and Jæger allows for an in-depth understanding of the complex relationships between cultural capital and social stratification.

  • Contemporary processes of migration and cultural adaptation.

Research by Lima, Waters, Neto, Tsapenko, Bhugra, and Harvey illuminates the dynamics of modern migrations and the intricacies of cultural adaptation among migrants.

  • Acculturation and influencing factors.

Integration of perspectives from Park, Barglowski, Berry, Alencar, Vuong, Lawson, Nayar, Fang, Berry, Bornstein, Juang, Mendenhall, Oddou, Ward, Kennedy, Chen, Gavrilova, Mohanty, Sam, Berry, Behara, Cheung, Rudmin provides a detailed understanding of acculturation and its multifaceted influencing factors.

  • Academic performance of migrants in the context of cultural capital.

Drawing on theories by Bourdieu, Kim, Lilla, Shah, Klimczuk, Lacroix, Bozdağ, Snee, Schachner, Manos sheds light on the interrelation between cultural capital and the academic success of migrants.

  • Virtual reality technology in cultural education for migrants.

The integration of scholarly research by Tikhonova, Herrero, Aysina, Bordnick, Ip, González-Zamar, Song, Nisha, and Shadiev establishes a connection between the use of VR technology, academic performance improvement, and the mitigation of acculturation stress in the context of cultural education.

Such an approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of the interconnected dynamics, forming the research focus on cultural capital, acculturation, and the transformative potential of VR technology in the educational process for migrants.

1.3 Problem statement

The world is experiencing the continuous development of globalization processes, the pronounced internationalization of education, and the acceleration of cross-border processes in cultural education. Thus, the problem of acculturation of foreign migrants in the cultural environment of the host state has become particularly acute under these circumstances. The solution to this problem would contribute to intercultural interethnic communication, the expansion of the international market, increasing multiculturalism in the field of cultural education on the world stage, and intercultural exchange between the countries of the world. One of the most effective ways to solve this problem is the inclusion of virtual reality technology in the process of cultural education of migrant students to increase their academic performance and reduce acculturation stress.

In this study, virtual reality (VR) technology serves as a transformative tool in cultural education for migrant students. By immersing students in simulated cultural environments, VR offers a unique opportunity for experiential learning, fostering a deeper understanding of diverse cultures and enhancing intercultural communication skills. Moreover, VR has the potential to alleviate acculturation stress by providing a controlled and supportive space for students to navigate and adapt to new cultural contexts.

This study put forward the following hypotheses:

  1. 1.

    VR technologies can positively impact the acculturation of migrant students.

  2. 2.

    VR technologies can reduce the acculturation stress of individuals.

  3. 3.

    VR technologies can improve the academic performance of migrant students.

The research objectives were to identify the acculturation type of migrant students with different academic performances, which can increase their academic success and optimize their integration into a new society, and identify the relationship between the performance of migrant students and their cultural integration in the context of a multicultural educational process.

The main research objectives were the following:

  • Consider acculturation processes as tools for the formation of global cultural capital.

  • Determine the relationship between acculturation strategies and the academic achievement of migrant students.

  • Analyze the relationship between cultural integration and the academic performance of migrant students.

  • Determine the impact of cultural capital on the economic development of different ethnic and social groups.

  • Consider the acculturation features of migrant students in the context of global educational internationalization.

  • Determine the impact of virtual reality technology on acculturation, acculturation stress, and academic performance of migrant students in the framework of cultural education.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Research design and sample

This study’s design is of the cohort type. The research included an online survey among migrant students from different countries studying in Moscow and Yelabuga, the Russian Federation. The study participants were citizens of China, Vietnam, Mongolia, and Turkmenistan, who studied in the third semester at the preparatory faculty for foreigners at the RUDN University, aged 18 to 25 years, as well as citizens of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, who studied at the Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University. Results were analyzed by 2 expert sociologists from the Center for Independent Sociological Research (Moscow). The survey was carried out on the IDRlabs online platform and was aimed to determine the relationship between academic performance and acculturation of migrant students as well as to identify the most optimal acculturation strategy that can increase the academic achievement and integration of migrant students. The survey was conducted in English among 1032 respondents; some of them formed a study sample (N = 400, n = 100 per group).

The respondents were sampled in two stages: by spontaneous sampling in the first stage and by repeated mechanical sampling of 400 people from the total number of respondents in the second stage with a selection criterion of a certain academic performance. The general population consisted of migrant students from different countries aged 18 to 25 years with different academic performances and cultural capital. The demographic profile of the respondents was thoroughly analyzed to provide a deeper understanding of the macro-context of the participants. The distribution encompasses age groups, countries of origin, gender characteristics, affiliation with various faculties, academic performance levels, and years of study at universities. To determine the academic performance level of the respondents, the ECTS grading system was employed: "Excellent" (scores 90–100), "Good" (scores 75–89), "Satisfactory" (scores 60–74), and "Unsatisfactory" (scores 1–59). This system allowed the classification of students into four groups with different levels of academic performance, a key aspect in the context of this study.

Based on the answers about the academic performance, 4 groups were formed (n = 100 per group):

  • Group A: students with “Excellent” grades (score 90–100).

  • Group B: students with “Good” grades (score 75–89).

  • Group C: students with “Satisfactory” grades (score 60–74).

  • Group D: students with “Unsatisfactory” grades (score 1–59).

The research enrolled 400 people aged 18 to 25 years, male and female, through an online survey. Respondents were selected from among the migrant students of the RUDN University, as well as the RUDN University.

2.2 Research tools

To conduct the study, an online survey was administered among migrants from different countries studying in Russia. Within the research framework, the Schwartz questionnaire (1992) and Berry’s 2D acculturation model (2005) were utilized to identify the value orientations of ethnic minorities. An experiment with virtual reality was conducted to understand the impact of this technology on the academic performance and acculturation of students. Students participated in virtual excursions through the historical center of St. Petersburg, after which they were assessed based on academic performance, acculturation, and stress. Surveys SL-ASIA and ILS were employed to measure acculturation and stress.

2.3 Intervention features

The survey was carried out using an online questionnaire for 10 days (from November 10, 2021, to November 20, 2021). The statistical error of the survey results does not exceed 1.4%. The research had 2 stages:

  1. 1.

    Implementation stage where respondents were interviewed, and data were collected within 6 days. At that, 400 people were selected from spontaneously interviewed 1032 respondents according to their academic performance.

  2. 2.

    Follow-up stage where the obtained data were analyzed, and the reports were prepared within 4 days.

The respondents were surveyed using a 2D acculturation model by Berry (2005) and a questionnaire by Schwartz (1992), which allowed diagnosis of the system of value orientations of ethnic minorities in the preferences of various acculturation strategies.

To determine the impact of academic performance after learning with virtual reality, a study was conducted without a control group. One hundred random students from the research sample (N = 400) were asked to take three classes from the "World Cultural Heritage" course using virtual reality technology. The virtual model was built using Rhino software and then imported into Unity to perform animations and allow the 3D environment to interact with the Oculus Rift overhead displays. Each 1-h session involved a virtual tour of the historic center of the city, where each building is described with an audio narration. Each audio description informs the user of the cultural heritage value of the building in question. The main square of the city of St. Petersburg (Russia) was chosen as an example for the practical implementation of one of the activities. Many architectural monuments in the historic center of the city represent an ideal heritage site to work with. After that, the level of academic achievement, acculturation, and acculturation stress was determined. To check the progress of students, they were asked to answer 10 questions (Appendix) related to the content of virtual excursions. The maximum score for the test was 10 points. Each participant’s acculturation level was measured using the SL-ASIA. A 26-question version was used in which all questions were scored on a five-point Likert-type scale. In this study, the reliability of the SL-ASIA was 0.74 (Cronbach’s alpha).

Each participant’s level of acculturation stress was measured using the ILS, a 31-item instrument in which participants reported how often they experienced feelings associated with each statement. Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 0 (never) to 3 (often). Thus, the possible range of ILS scores is from 0 to 93. A higher score means a higher level of acculturation stress. In this study, the reliability of the ILS was 0.85 (Cronbach’s alpha).

A schematic plan illustrating the stages of the research is depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Stages of the research implementation

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2.4 Statistical analysis

Mathematical and statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS-12.0. The data were tested against three assumptions for multivariate procedures: normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity. Descriptive analysis was used to examine the central tendency and the distribution of each variable, including the mean, skewness, and kurtosis values. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the effect of virtual reality. After the regression analysis, a Sobel test was conducted to test the mediator effect.

3 Results and discussion

In the process of acculturation, people encounter new unfamiliar cultural norms and values. In this case, acculturation stress may be due to a lack of adaptive resources in individuals (Harvey & Mallman, 2019). In terms of multicultural education, the use of virtual reality technology provides a virtual platform of cultural integration and education for migrants with a low level of adaptive resources. It allows participants to experience "real" feelings of integration into the host country’s culture, similar to personal experience. Additionally, virtual reality technology enhances the sense of cultural acquisition in the current material environment (Tikhonova et al., 2020). VR videos involve computer technology and sensor technology to create a three-dimensional virtual environment (Ip et al., 2019; Nayar, 2015; Nisha, 2019). The 360-degree panoramic virtual world interacts with three-dimensional spatial surround sound, a stereo-visual display system, and the user’s binocular parallax to create a deep stereo image (González-Zamar & Abad-Segura, 2020). VR can provide migrant students with a rich and immersive environment and allow them to explore a new culture in a virtual mode. It ensures an interactive experience that is more realistic, safe, and less restrictive than traditional educational scenarios (Song, 2019). VR technology erases the boundaries of time and space and facilitates understanding and acceptance of the host country’s culture (Shadiev et al., 2020). At the same time, the interactive VR experience is more visual than traditional teaching methods. Therefore, it can stimulate students’ interest, improve their concentration, and increase academic performance through visual, auditory, tactile, and other intuitive and natural means of perception and interaction in real-time (Nisha, 2019).

Within this study, the demographic characteristics of the respondents were thoroughly analyzed. The results of the statistical analysis revealed that younger respondents (aged 18–19 years) exhibit a higher level of emotional response to academic stress and acculturation processes compared to the older age group (20–25 years). It is also noteworthy that participants from different countries showed variations in acculturation strategy preferences and perceptions of virtual reality. For instance, students from countries with a high level of individualism expressed greater interest in the integration strategy and virtual educational programs. The research findings also affirmed that men and women are approximately equally susceptible to academic stress and acculturation stress but differ in their choice of acculturation strategies and preferences in types of virtual experiences. Gender-based preferences in acculturation strategies among respondents are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Preferences in acculturation strategies depending on respondents' gender

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Demographic analysis by faculties revealed that students in humanities disciplines show a greater interest in the use of virtual reality for educational purposes compared to their peers in technical disciplines. It was also determined that students with a high level of academic performance and a longer duration of the study demonstrated a higher level of academic achievement and acculturation resilience as a result of using virtual reality. These results not only highlight the correlation between demographic characteristics, acculturation strategies, academic stress, and the effectiveness of virtual reality use in the academic environment but also provide a more detailed insight into the diversity of acculturation strategies employed by different respondent groups.

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and correlations for the main variables in this study.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations for the variables
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In examining the correlations between the predictor and outcome variables, it was found that acculturation was significantly and negatively correlated with acculturation stress, showing a correlation -0.23 (p < 0.01). Acculturation and the mediator variable (academic achievement) showed significant and positive correlations: 0.22 (p < 0.01). In examining the correlations between acculturation stress and academic performance, it was found that academic performance was significantly and negatively related to acculturation stress with a correlation of -0.32 (p < 0.01).

Table 2 presents the results of regression analysis to examine the mediating effect of academic performance, following virtual reality training.

Table 2 Results of multiple regression analysis
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Results showed significant associations between acculturation and acculturation stress (B = -0.41, p < 0.001), between acculturation and academic performance (B = 0.12, p = 0.002), and between virtual reality and acculturation stress (B = -0.22, p < 0.001). Achievement significantly predicted acculturation stress when acculturation was included. In addition, the effect of acculturation on acculturation stress was weaker when achievement was included (B = -0.31, p = 0.003). A Sobel test was used to test the mediated relationship and showed a statistic of -2.58 (p = 0.008), thus confirming that academic performance is a partial mediator of the relationship between acculturation level and acculturation stress.

Following the established goals, the authors determined the relationship between the academic performance of migrant students and their acculturation. They identified an optimal acculturation strategy that can increase the academic performance of migrant students and establish integration processes. The researchers analyzed the main acculturation strategies within international education to identify the strategy that can reduce migration stress increase the cultural capital of individuals and set up communication between migrant students and the host country’s society. They analyzed the following acculturation strategies within the integration of migrant students: assimilation, separation, marginalization, and integration. Mathematical and statistical analysis of the survey among the spontaneously sampled respondents revealed that the proportions of “Excellent”, “Good”, “Satisfactory”, and “Unsatisfactory” students’ grades were 35.2%, 39%, 15.6%, and 10.2%, respectively (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Academic performance of spontaneously sampled respondents

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The subsequent analysis of the survey results was carried out on a repeated sample (N = 400). The survey of Group A showed that 49%, 21%, 17%, and 13% of students were subject to integration, separation, assimilation, and marginalization, respectively. In Group B, 59%, 22%, 13%, and 6% of students strived for integration, assimilation, marginalization, and separation, respectively. The most common tendency in Group C was marginalization (32%) followed by assimilation (26%), integration (22%), and separation (20%). In Group D, 43%, 31%, 16%, and 10% of students were subject to separation, marginalization, assimilation, and integration, respectively. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the academic performance of migrant students and the type of acculturation in the host society.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Relationship between the performance of migrant students and the type of their acculturation in the host society

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Thus, integration was identified as the most relevant acculturation trend for migrant students in the context of modern international education (35%) followed by separation (22.4%), marginalization (22.3%), and assimilation (20.3%) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Assessment of the relevance of acculturation trends within education of migrant students

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The obtained quantitative data illustrate that the academic success of immigrant students directly depends on their acculturation profile. The findings allow concluding that integration has a positive effect on the academic success of international students while assimilation, marginalization, and separation show relatively negative relationships with academic performance.

The analysis showed that participants prone to assimilation showed a significantly higher desire for self-development than those aimed at integration. The main orientation of migrant students with high achievements in the host country’s language and high academic self-esteem is integration. Less destructive behavior is inherent in assimilation-oriented respondents. Such indicators are related to the ethnic national and social identity of migrant students, their cultural capital, as well as the culture and politics of their native country.

The existence and extent of the gap in academic achievement between students from different countries are to some extent related to differences in the multicultural climate and policies of states. Research shows that immigrant students experience less sense of belonging to a new culture, which partly explains the gap in academic performance between immigrant students from different countries and ethnic communities.

The level of involvement in a new cultural environment is directly related to the perceived educational context such as relationships with peers, teachers, and academic performance. This relationship may differ between people from different countries due to their family educational background, cultural capital, social status, and perceived cultural distance.

The data analysis revealed that not only does the level of acculturation directly affect acculturation stress, but this relationship seems to be based in part on how international students perceive their academic performance. In other words, how students perceive their academic performance explains some degree of variance in the relationship between acculturation level and acculturation stress. This study suggests that acculturation experience with stress causes international students to improve their performance through virtual reality, which subsequently leads to a decrease in acculturation stress. Students with lower levels of acculturation stress may have better academic performance, also due to virtual reality. The obtained results found support in one of the studies, the statistical significance of indicators of psychological stress reduction in migrant students as a result of learning with the help of virtual reality was recorded (Tikhonova et al., 2020).

Bourdieu (2011) argued that cultural capital is a key success factor in education because teachers misunderstand it as academic talent and reward it as such. Moreover, since students with high socioeconomic status (SES) have, on average, higher cultural capital than students with low SES; they have a comparative advantage in the education system that helps them reproduce their privileged social position. Students with high SES are more likely to attend extracurricular activities and communicate with people from different sociocultural groups, which will allow them to convert their existing cultural capital into academic success (Jæger & Møllegaard, 2017).

The survey results show that low social adaptation in the host society leads to the poor academic performance of migrant students. In turn, unsatisfactory academic results lead to the rejection of their new culture and deprive students of the opportunity to harmoniously merge into a new social culture without prejudice towards their own identity. At that, high adaptation stimulates integration, which promotes cultural exchange and the expansion of individual cultural capital increasing academic performance. The formation of global cultural capital and integration of migrants in education systems operate as central institutional mechanisms that legitimize cosmopolitanism as a desirable attribute of a person living in a global world, but they distribute this universally desirable attribute unevenly among the population (Waters, 2008).

The role of the integration of migrant students in the development of global cultural capital has also been studied in European countries. The studies noted the imperfections of international educational systems due to their lack of social orientation and superficial investigation of the education structure within national and ethnic characteristics of migration groups (Neto, 2021). At present, most of the global education systems are based on cosmopolitan schemes that take humanity, not nationality, as the main frame of reference (Snee, 2014).

Global studies (Lilla et al., 2021; Mohanty et al., 2018; Schachner et al., 2017; Waters, 2008) note that norms of competition in international educational institutions and high expectations are a source of stress for migrant students. Due to the isolated ethnic environment, some students have difficulties adapting to a new social and cultural environment and are subject to cumulative stress, which directly affects their academic performance (Sam & Berry, 2010). Lower academic performance pushes migrant students to abandon their culture in favor of the host culture; this entails their complete or partial assimilation. Thus, a vicious circle is created where poor academic performance due to immigration stress leads to assimilation, which in turn does not allow an individual to diversify and fully reveal their potential and limits their academic performance (Manos, 2019). The above findings are similar to the current survey results since the relevance of assimilation within the education of migrant students compared with other acculturation strategies was 20.3%. The relationship between the academic performance of migrant students and their acculturation dynamics showed that the students with below-average academic performance have the highest trend toward assimilation.

However, migrant students are often subject to the acculturation trend opposite of assimilation: separation. The separation strategy creates a psychological, cultural, and ideological gap between migrants (individuals and groups) and the host society, which can lead to inequality, discrimination, and hostility between them. These negative factors may decrease the social and creative activity of migrants as well as their academic performance (Kamak et al., 2017; Rudmin, 2003). The current survey results confirm the above conclusion about the decreased performance of migrant students, who are prone to separation within acculturation: 43% of the students with “Unsatisfactory” grades strived for separation, which has become the most popular acculturation strategy within this group. Thus, it is possible to trace a direct relationship between separation trends in the acculturation of migrant students and their low academic performance.

Marginalization, when heritage and mainstream orientation are weak, is considered the least adaptive acculturation strategy and is associated with lower academic self-esteem of migrant students (Behara et al., 2018; Lilla et al., 2021). Marginalization can lead to a loss of a sense of belonging and increase the number of students with unsatisfactory academic performance (Tsapenko & Grishin, 2018). The current findings partially confirm these statements since an obvious relationship was revealed between the unsatisfactory academic performance of migrant students and marginal tendencies in their acculturation (31%). However, these findings show that the least adaptive acculturation strategy turned out to be separation, which prevailed among students with “Unsatisfactory” grades.

Integration is considered the most adaptive because this pattern is associated with the lowest acculturation stress (Lilla et al., 2021). Social integration is a source of well-being, which includes a sense of community, belonging, and solidarity that increases the academic performance of a migrant student (Cheung & Llu, 2000). The current survey results confirmed the above conclusions since the desire for integration prevailed among migrant students with “Excellent” (49%) and “Good” (59%) grades. At that, students with below-average academic performance were more inclined toward separation and marginalization. The current findings showed that integration is the most adaptive and effective in terms of improving the academic performance of migrant students within modern international education (35% compared to other acculturation strategies).

The conclusions of this study are further supported by the findings of similar research. Bourdieu’s work emphasizes the crucial role of cultural capital in educational success (Bourdieu, 2011), confirming our observation that students with high socioeconomic status have an advantage in the education system. Moreover, research by Salikutluk, Kao, and Tienda highlights the positive impact of integration on the well-being and academic performance of migrants (Kao & Tienda, 2022; Lawson & Shepherd, 2019; Salikutluk, 2016; Vuong & Napier, 2015). This further reinforces our assertion that integration plays a decisive role in determining academic success among this group. The works of Karim, Alencar, and Deuze analyze the extensive landscape of acculturation strategies and their influence on academic outcomes, affirming our claim that integration is the most adaptive strategy, while assimilation, marginalization, and separation are associated with relatively negative academic results (Alencar & Deuze, 2017; Karim, 2021).

Furthermore, studies by Ip et al., Daniela, and Aierken have identified that the use of VR technology in migrant education contributes to a positive perception of the new cultural environment (Daniela & Aierken, 2020; Ip et al, 2019). These findings resonate with our results, supporting the idea that VR contributes to the formation of a positive acculturation experience. Ch’Ng et al.’s research emphasize that VR technologies can significantly enhance students’ interest and engagement in the educational process, especially in the context of studying cultural heritage (Ch’Ng et al., 2020). These results underscore the significance of virtual reality in improving academic outcomes and fostering a positive attitude toward the new cultural environment among migrants. Thus, our study finds support in global scientific literature, demonstrating that the application of VR in multicultural education is an effective means of reducing acculturative stress and enhancing the academic performance of migrants.

4 Conclusion

In this research, a survey was conducted to determine the most effective acculturation strategy that can increase the academic performance of migrant students and set up the process of building global cultural capital. Mathematical and statistical analysis of the survey defined integration as the most effective acculturation trend in the context of improving the academic performance of migrant students and expanding their worldview and cultural boundaries (35%). Also, it showed high integration into the host society of migrant students with above-average performance (49% and 59% of students with “Excellent” and “Good” grades, respectively).

Understanding the effectiveness of various acculturation strategies in the context of improving the academic performance of migrants will help teachers in organizing courses and curricula that contribute to the general cultural and profile development of migrant students. It will allow teachers to assess the situation and set up a dialogue between the host society and migrant students to eliminate separation and hostility in the team. It will also open prospects for increasing the efficiency of the transition of educational systems to full cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism.

To stimulate more successful adaptation of migrant students and improve their performance, it is recommended to integrate into the educational content of individual disciplines (history, philosophy, literature, etc.) the study of the works of scientists represented by the cultural traditions of university migrants who have contributed to the development of science; and to use examples of sources from different cultures in the implementation of the educational program, including key concepts and theories. This will allow students to relate to the educational process and feel that their culture is being accepted. One should consider the possibility of including optional subjects in the curricula aimed at revealing the identity of the cultural minorities of migrant students. One should also continue the practice of introducing an individual student learning path, taking into account the multicultural component; it is also relevant to implement differentiated and effective learning strategies to increase student motivation.

This study also identified the potential of VR-technology in enhancing acculturation and academic performance among migrant students. Utilizing VR can provide immersive cultural experiences, fostering a deeper understanding of diverse perspectives and promoting empathy. Integrating VR into educational practices can create engaging environments that enhance the acculturation process and positively impact academic outcomes. This addition provides valuable insights for educational technology stakeholders, underlining the significance of incorporating VR as a tool for cultural integration in the academic context.

These findings can be used in sociological practice for conducting surveys and questioning different groups and social strata, in the practice of university leaders and teachers, in political science to study the relationship between cultural exchange and state development, in political activities to implement bills that eradicate inequalities caused by insufficient cultural capital of different population strata, and in psychological practice to work with migrants for reducing immigration stress and increasing their adaptation in the host society.

4.1 Research limitation

The research limitation is a possible inaccuracy of findings due to potential distortion of the answers by the surveyed individuals. The objectivity of respondents’ answers could be affected by psycho-emotional and social factors that can lead to their conscious or unconscious desire to show their academic results in a more positive aspect. The survey results cannot be applied to the entire population. The evaluation of academic performance, acculturation, and acculturation stress after learning in virtual reality for students outside the control group may be inaccurate due to the individual, ethnic, national, and socio-cultural characteristics of respondents. In addition, individual psychological factors could also affect their ability to accumulate adaptive resources.

4.2 Implications of the study

The results of the study can be valuable for teachers working in a multicultural environment. They may use the findings to reduce acculturation stress in the classroom, improve student performance, and better understand the features of migrant student integration into a new cultural environment. The teachers may also use the results to identify ways to harmonize the acculturation process for foreign students based on their characteristics and the specifics of their native cultures.

Within the framework of education, the present findings may be used for the transition from traditional to multimedia education, given the digitalization and transnationalism of various spheres of public life in the modern era. The results of the study can be used to develop educational courses in culturology taking into account the multicultural background. The courses based on the present results can increase the cultural literacy of students and familiarize migrant students with the spiritual culture of the host society. Additionally, the results may be essential when preparing curricula aimed at combating national, racial, and other prejudices. A favorable climate in a multicultural classroom favorably affects the acculturation of migrant students and reduces acculturation stress.

Political and public figures may also use the results of the study to decide on measures related to the issue of migrants’ acculturation in the host society, their education, and academic performance. The finding may be useful in the context of preserving and promoting elements of the cultural heritage of different countries, peoples, and ethnic groups, as well as improving the qualification of teachers in the framework of cultural education. The results can be useful in the field of international activities to establish economic and cultural exchange between different countries through the implementation of effective cross-border education.

The results of the study may facilitate ensuring the transnationalism of cultural education through the use of virtual reality technology, developing educational platforms with VR support, and creating a realistic VR education environment. In this case, migrant students would better understand the ethnic culture and customs of the host country. Moreover, developers may use the present findings to create virtual museums with VR support that simulate traditional festivals, demonstrate folk life items, dances with ethnic characteristics, and traditional crafts of the country, as well as realistically present them to foreign cultural representatives via gadgets.