Young parents in and aging out of foster care demonstrate great resilience, balancing the developmental tasks of adolescence with the demands of parenthood, and they are motivated to create a better life for their children (Pryce & Samuels, 2009; Schelbe & Geiger, 2017). Compared to their peers without foster care experience, young people in and aging out of foster care in the United States experience higher rates of early parenting (Dworsky & Courtney, 2010; Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2016; Putnam-Hornstein & King, 2014; Shpiegel & Cascardi, 2018; Svoboda et al., 2012) and poorer educational outcomes (Dworsky et al., 2014), including lower college enrollment and graduation rates (Courtney et al., 2011, 2018; Geiger & Beltran, 2017). Research also indicates that young parents in foster care in the United States are less likely to enroll in college than their non-parent peers in foster care (Courtney & Hook, 2017; Okpych & Courtney, 2019), and parenting responsibilities cause some young parents in foster care who enroll in college to drop out (Courtney et al., 2011).

Early parenting and low levels of educational attainment each have lifelong economic and social consequences (Bae, 2020; Pirog et al., 2018; Torpey, 2021). These consequences may be amplified when they co-occur (Hofferth et al., 2001). Increasing postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in and aging out of foster care is one way to improve their well-being and the well-being of their children.

The economic benefits of postsecondary education are well-documented (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). Research suggests that education has greater positive effects on the employment and earnings of young people with a history of foster care than on the employment and earnings of young people in the general population (Okpych & Courtney, 2019). Postsecondary education has the potential to change the life course trajectories of young parents in and aging out of foster care, and hence, the life course trajectories of their children (Harding et al., 2015). However, little attention has been paid to what it would take to increase postsecondary educational attainment among this population. This paper aims to fill that gap.

We begin with a review of the literature on the educational attainment of young people in and leaving care in the United States, including those who are parents. Next, we present a framework for thinking about postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in and aging out of foster care. Because we are not aware of any interventions that have been shown to increase postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in and aging out of foster care, we describe postsecondary educational interventions for young parents in the general population and young people aging out of foster care, which could also benefit young parents in and aging out of foster care. We conclude with a discussion of policy and practice changes that may help to increase postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in and aging out of foster care in the United States and with recommendations for future research.

We use the word “young parents” throughout the paper to refer to young people who have a child, regardless of their gender. However, we recognize that important differences are likely to exist between the experiences of young mothers and the experiences of young fathers in or aging out of foster care, especially given that young mothers are much more likely than young fathers to be custodial parents (Courtney et al., 2007, 2018). We also recognize that many of the challenges to pursuing and completing postsecondary education faced by young parents in or aging out of foster care are also faced by young parents without foster care histories. At the same time, young parents in or aging out of foster care likely face additional challenges related to their involvement in the child welfare system, including they may have a lack of family support. Finally, our focus is on the experiences of young parents in and aging out of foster care in the U.S. Because the experiences of young parents are shaped by the larger socio-political context in which they live, the experiences of young parents in and aging out of foster care in other countries will likely be different.

Literature Review

Many studies have examined the educational outcomes of young people in foster care, and a fairly consistent picture has emerged from this research. Compared to their peers without foster care experience, young people in foster care are more likely to have been retained, perform poorly on standardized tests, and be classified as eligible for special education services (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Smithgall et al., 2004). They often attend the lowest-performing schools and experience disruptions in their education due to frequent school transitions (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Smithgall et al., 2004). Young people in foster care are also less likely than their peers to graduate from high school (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Courtney et al., 2011).

Educational disparities between young people in foster care and their non-foster care peers continue after high school. Young people in foster care are less likely to enroll in college if they have a high school diploma or equivalent credential (Courtney et al., 2011; Frerer et al., 2013), and less likely to graduate from college if they enroll (Courtney et al., 2011; Davis, 2006) compared with other young adults. This difference in graduation rates persists even when students who have experienced foster care are compared to low-income, first-generation college students (Day et al., 2011; Okpych & Courtney, 2018a, 2018b). Moreover, although research suggests that extended foster care may promote college enrollment, it does not appear to increase graduation rates (Dworsky & Courtney, 2010; Okpych & Courtney, 2019).

The disparities in college enrollment and college graduation rates between young people in foster care and their peers does not reflect a difference in postsecondary aspirations. Young people in foster care are as likely to aspire to attend college as other young people their age (Courtney et al., 2004; McMillen et al., 2003). In one study, 81% of 17- and 18-year-olds in care reported aspirations to earn at least a college degree (Okpych & Courtney, 2017). Rather, the disparities in enrollment and graduation rates can probably be attributed to a host of challenges that can derail college plans (e.g., Day et al., 2012; Rios & Rocco, 2014). For example, young people in foster care may not be given information about their college options or assistance with college applications by caseworkers or caregivers (Merdinger et al., 2005; Rios & Rocco,  2014). They may also be unaware of federal and state financial aid programs for which they are eligible or not know how to navigate the financial aid application process (Davis, 2006). Differences in college readiness may also play a role (Unrau et al., 2012). Young people in foster care are often tracked into basic education rather than college preparatory courses, and hence, may not be academically prepared for college-level work (Emerson, 2006).

Once they exit foster care and lose access to the supportive services provided by the child welfare system (Geiger et al., 2018; Katz & Geiger, 2020; Piel, 2018; Rios & Rocco, 2014; Tobolowski et al., 2019), many young people experience economic insecurity or housing instability that can make it difficult to focus on their education (Dworsky et al., 2013). Those with mental or behavioral health problems often discontinue treatment and these problems can interfere with their ability to succeed in school (Courtney & Dworsky, 2005; McMillen & Raghavan, 2009). Moreover, student services personnel at postsecondary institutions may be unfamiliar with or not prepared to address the challenges these young people face (Emerson, 2006).

Early Parenthood Among Young People in and Aging Out of Foster Care

Despite a dramatic decline in the U.S. teen birth rate over the past few decades (Martin et al., 2021), young people in foster care continue to be at high risk for early parenthood. Although estimates vary depending on the study, research suggests that between 18 and 32 percent of young women in foster care give birth by age 19 (Courtney et al., 2016; Courtney et al., 2005; Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2016; Shpiegel et al., 2017) and that between 35 and 57 percent give birth by age 21 (Courtney et al., 2018; Courtney et al., 2007; Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2016; Shpiegel & Cascardi, 2018). For young men, current estimates suggest that approximately 10 percent become fathers by age 19 (Courtney et al., 2016), and nearly 20 percent become fathers by age 21 (Courtney et al., 2018). Overall, young people currently or formerly in foster care exhibit much higher rates of early parenthood than their peers in the general population (Courtney et al., 2005, 2016; Shaw et al., 2010). Young parents aging out of foster care report facing overwhelming stress and adversity. Their living arrangements are often unstable (Dworsky & DeCoursey, 2009; Shpiegel et al., 2020), and many receive little to no support from family, friends, or other caring adults (Aparicio, 2017; Courtney et al., 2012; Radey et al., 2016; Schelbe & Geiger, 2017). Young parents in care often continue to struggle with limited support after they age out and experience difficulty accessing resources such as financial assistance, childcare, or transportation (Courtney et al., 2012; Radey et al., 2017).

Postsecondary Education and Young Parents in and Aging Out of Foster Care

Early parenthood can be a significant barrier to postsecondary education among young people in or aging out of foster care (Piel, 2018). The demands of parenthood may preclude young parents in foster care from pursuing postsecondary education or prevent those who do enroll from earning a degree (Courtney et al., 2011), especially while their children are young (Combs et al., 2018; Piel, 2018; Shpiegel & Cascardi, 2018). Although research on this topic is limited, evidence suggests that young parents in or aging out of foster care are less likely than their non-parent peers to enroll in college (Courtney & Hook, 2017; Okpych & Courtney, 2019).

Given the high rate of early parenthood among young women who age out of foster care and the higher rate of college enrollment among young women than young men among the aging out population (Courtney et al., 2011), a substantial proportion of college students with foster care histories are likely to be parenting. In fact, parenthood may motivate some young people to continue their education to improve their own and their children’s prospects (Aparicio et al., 2015; Schelbe & Geiger, 2017). Yet, most colleges and universities do not have services or supports designed for student parents with a history of foster care.

Increasing postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in and aging out of foster care requires an understanding of what those young parents need to pursue and complete their postsecondary education. The Healthy Teen Network Young Parents Logic Model (Desiderio et al., 2020) provides a useful framework for understanding those needs.

Overview of Young Parents Logic Model

The Healthy Teen Network Young Parents Logic Model was developed based on an extensive review of relevant research, programs, and services; recommendations from the Center for Assessment and Policy Development; and feedback from members of the Healthy Teen Network including experts on pregnant and parenting adolescents (Desiderio et al., 2020). It was based on the behavior-determinant-intervention logic model (Kirby, 2004) and grounded in a social-ecological perspective (McLeroy et al., 1988), which posits that there are complex interactions between individual, relationship, community, and societal factors. The Young Parents Logic Model encourages practitioners—(i.e., anyone working with pregnant and parenting adolescents)—to look beyond individual-level (e.g., personal beliefs and skills) factors and towards the relationship-level (e.g., parents or caregivers, other family members, partners, peers, and other people), community-level (e.g., physical space, values, and supports), and societal level (e.g., policies, cultural beliefs, and scientific knowledge) factors that can influence individual-level behavior. This can help practitioners design holistic programs that meet young parents’ unique needs (Desiderio et al., 2020).

The Young Parents Logic Model is organized around eight goals relevant to young people who are pregnant or parenting (Fig. 1). Practitioners can use it to visualize relationships among goals (i.e., intended outcomes of an intervention), behaviors (i.e., specific actions that can influence the attainment of those goals), determinants (i.e., the risk and protective factors that influence behavior), and interventions (i.e., resources, services, and activities), See Fig. 2). Some determinants are overarching in that they influence all goals and behaviors. Other determinants are specific to particular goals and behaviors. Among the determinants are systematic factors (e.g., oppression and discrimination; stigmatization; poverty; and historical trauma); community factors (e.g., access to affordable healthcare, childcare, transportation, and housing); and relational factors (e.g., safe and healthy relationships, social networks and positive connections to peers). Practitioners can select, develop, or adapt interventions that can affect those determinants.

Fig. 1
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Young parents logical model goals

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Fig. 2
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Relationships between the goal, behaviors, determinants, and interventions in the Young Parents Logic Model

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The Young Parent Logic Model does not prescribe particular interventions for any of the identified goals because interventions are context-dependent. Interventions that are effective in one setting or with one group of young parents (e.g., White young parents in a rural community) may not be effective in a different setting or with a different group of young parents (e.g., Black or Latinx young parents in an urban community). Additionally, any interventions may be more aligned with the mission or capacity of one institution (e.g., a community college) than another (e.g., a faith-based organization).

Applying the Young Parents Logic Model

The Young Parents Logical Model provides a useful framework for thinking about how to increase postsecondary educational attainment among parents in or aging out of foster care. The process starts with identifying a goal and then the behaviors, determinants, and interventions that will lead to that goal. The Young Parents Logic Model identifies increasing educational attainment as one of eight goals important for young people who are pregnant and/or parenting. To achieve that goal, it identifies three relevant behaviors: (1) increasing enrollment and attendance in educational programs; (2) increasing progress towards graduation requirements; and (3) increasing graduation.

To influence these behaviors, the model identifies a series of overarching determinants as well as determinants specific to the goal of educational attainment. Eight of these determinants are particularly relevant to postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in or aging out of foster care:

  1. 1.

    Positive messages about the benefits of postsecondary education

  2. 2.

    Development of and motivation to pursue long-term educational and professional goals

  3. 3.

    Supportive relationships with individuals who support educational attainment

  4. 4.

    Development of positive connection to and engagement with educational institutions

  5. 5.

    Access to and use of community, or school-based, or other social services

  6. 6.

    Living in a safe environment free of violence

  7. 7.

    Maintenance of physical and mental health and well-being

  8. 8.

    Consistent, equitable enforcement of Title IX policies, including those related to appropriate living accommodations

Although our focus is on the goal of increased postsecondary educational attainment, we recognize that this goal is unlikely to be achieved if other goals, such as increased housing and financial stability are not addressed.

Interventions to Increase Postsecondary Educational Attainment Among Parents in and Aging Out of Foster Care

Increasing postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in and aging out of foster care requires knowledge about interventions already being implemented with this population or similar populations. A search of peer-reviewed literature, technical reports, and the internet more broadly did not uncover any interventions designed specifically to increase postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in or aging out care. However, it did reveal a number of programs, several of which we highlight below, aimed at promoting educational attainment among both young parents in the general population and young people in and aging out of foster care. Although the programs we highlight were not developed with the Young Parent Logic Model in mind, they are generally aligned with a social-ecological perspective in that they address factors at multiple levels (i.e., individual, relationship, community, and societal). They also address several of the eight determinants most relevant to postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in and aging out of foster care. These programs or components of these programs could potentially help young parents in or aging out of foster care access postsecondary education, succeed in school, and graduate with a degree (See Fig. 3.).

Fig. 3
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Interventions for young parents, young people aging out of care, and young parents in and aging out of care

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Programs to Promote Postsecondary Education among Young Parents

Several programs across the U.S. aim to promote postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in the general population. Examples include Second Chance Homes in Atlanta, Georgia; Ohio’s Learning, Earning, and Parenting (LEAP Costello, 2014); the Single Mothers Academic Resource Team (SMART) in Oklahoma; Project Independence at Portland Community College in Oregon (Schumacher, 2015); and the Self Sufficiency Program offered by the University of Wisconsin—La Crosse ([UWL], 2021). These programs help young people who are pregnant or parenting graduate from high school or earn a GED and provide them with information about their options for postsecondary education. For example, the Self Sufficiency Program is a free 10-week pre-college program that introduces single parents to the college application and admissions process, provides information about financial aid and scholarships, and helps build critical thinking, writing, and math skills. Students who complete the program may be eligible for a Locally Grown Scholarship to UWL or another area college.

Other programs provide support to young parents who are enrolled in institutions of higher education. For example, the Endicott College’s Keys to Degrees Program was developed in the 1990s to address the needs of single mothers pursuing postsecondary education (Green & Wylie, 2013). This program provides wraparound supports, including year-round on-campus family housing, full-time early childhood education, academic counseling, workshops and service learning, and career counseling. The model has been implemented at other colleges and universities including Dillard University, Eastern Michigan University, and Ferris State University (Richardson et al., 2016).

Similarly, the Care Center’s Bard Microcollege Holyoke provides young mothers and low-income women an opportunity to earn an Associates of Arts Degree from Bard College (The Care Center, 2021). Scholarships and grants cover the cost of tuition and books and the Care Center provides students with family housing, onsite state-licensed childcare, parenting classes, counseling, healthcare, transportation, and meals. It is one of several programs offered by the Care Center to help young mothers and low-income women attend college.

Community colleges have increasingly recognized the need to support student parents (Karp & Cruse, 2021). Some tailor the services and supports they provide to meet the unique needs of parenting students. For example, Los Angeles Valley College (LAVC) Family Resource Center has a Parent Scholar program that offers coaching/mentoring and emergency funding stipends (LAVC, n.d.). The Family Resource Center also offers a non-credit parenting class, academic and community resource counseling, school and infant supplies (e.g., diapers, and formula), a textbook library and computer lab, a children’s clothing exchange, and a food pantry. Other community colleges have or are developing similar programs.

Four-year colleges and universities are also providing services and supports to parenting students. For example, students at the University of California, Berkeley can access a wide range of services at the Student Parent Center, including counseling, housing, a food pantry, and a two-credit class for newly admitted student parents (Student Parent Center, n.d.). Additional supports are available through a Student Parent Association for Recruitment and Retention and children can be covered by the student health insurance plan.

The programs described above reflect a growing awareness about the need for institutions of higher education to address the needs of students who are also parents. However, many barriers to postsecondary education among young parents remain. Few colleges have on-campus housing for parenting students and their children (Schumacher, 2015). Student healthcare services may not include services for students who are pregnant and may be cost-prohibitive for parents with dependents (Schumacher, 2015). On-campus childcare can be expensive and waitlists can be long (Schumacher, 2015). Programs may not serve school-age children and hours of operation may be limited to when classes are offered.

Programs to Promote Postsecondary Education Among Young People in and Aging Out of Foster Care

Efforts by state and federal policymakers to increase access to postsecondary education among young people in and aging out of foster care have led to the creation of both state and federal programs that address financial barriers to pursuing a college degree. The Chafee Foster Care Program for Successful Transition to Adulthood is the primary source of federal funding for services to support young people in foster care during their transition to adulthood. States that have extended foster care to age 21 can provide Chafee-funded services to young people who have aged out of foster care until age 23. Educational assistance is among the services that Chafee dollars can be used to fund.

The Chafee Education and Training Voucher (ETV) Program provides eligible young people with up to $5,000 of assistance each year for up to five years to cover the costs of postsecondary education or training including tuition, fees, books, school supplies, computers, and room and board, as well as qualified living expenses (e.g., rent, food, transportation, health insurance, or childcare) not covered by other sources of financial aid. Young people must begin receiving assistance before their 21st birthday but remain eligible until age 26 if they are making satisfactory progress toward completion of their education or training program.

Additionally, many states have tuition waiver programs that allow young people in foster care to attend public institutions at no charge or a significantly reduced rate (Hernandez et al., 2017; Parker & Sarubbi, 2017), or scholarships that target young people who are or were in foster care (Eilertson, 2002; Spigel, 2004). Tuition and fee waivers can play a role in allowing parents aging out who are students in postsecondary settings to use other financial resources to pay for childcare, clothing, food, and other basic needs, as well as living expenses. About half of U.S. states have a tuition and fee waiver program for students currently or formerly in foster care. Tuition waivers have been shown to promote college persistence and college completion; however, recent research has shown that tuition waivers are often underutilized by students (Okpych et al., 2020; Watt & Faulkner, 2020). Tuition waivers vary by state and all students may not be eligible to receive a full waiver, which restricts access and utilization.

Campus support programs, which can now be found at a growing number of colleges and universities across the United States, provide students who are currently or were formerly in foster care with an array of wraparound services and supports to help them succeed in and graduate from college (Dworsky, 2020; Geiger et al., 2018). These programs have been addressing students’ financial, academic, housing, and social-emotional needs since the first campus support program, the Guardians Scholars Program at California State University, Fullerton, was established in 1998. Most are affiliated with a single college or university but some are part of a statewide network. Some receive state funding, but many are funded, at least in part, by private philanthropy (Dworsky & Perez, 2010; Geiger et al., 2018; Schelbe et al., 2019).

Although campus support programs were not designed with the specific needs of parents in or aging out of foster care in mind, some do address the needs of students who are parents through partnerships with other programs. For example, several of California’s campus support programs partner with childcare centers on or near campus so students can access childcare and early childhood development programming (e.g., Student Parent Center, n.d.). Similarly, Michigan State University’s Fostering Academics Mentoring Excellence (FAME, n.d.) Program collaborates with the Student Parent Resource Center which provides parenting students with a wide range of services and supports including help finding and paying for childcare and providing sick and emergency childcare services.

Finally, since 2010, states have had the option of extending federally funded foster care to age 21. Thus far, over half the states have exercised this option. Several studies have found a positive relationship between extended foster care and college enrollment (Courtney & Hook, 2017; Courtney et al., 2018; Dworsky & Courtney, 2010; Geiger & Okpych, 2021; Okpych & Courtney, 2020). Although this research has not looked specifically at whether extended foster care is associated with an increase in postsecondary educational attainment among young parents, there is no reason to think it would not.

Parents in and Aging Out of Foster Care

Several states have programs specifically for young parents in foster care (e.g., Dworsky, 2015). These programs, which are typically funded through contracts with state or county public child welfare agencies, provide young parents in foster care with services and supports that address their unique needs and the needs of their children. Examples include parenting education, parent coaching, parent–child programs, life skills training, developmental assessments/screenings for children, and parent support programs. Although these programs encourage young parents to continue their education, postsecondary education has generally not been a primary focus. Many young parents in foster care are either still completing high school or facing other challenges such as mental health crises and intimate partner violence (e.g., Eastman et al., 2019).

Implications for Policy and Practice

Increasing postsecondary educational attainment among parents in and aging out of foster care in the United States will require changes in both policy and practice that address the eight determinants in the Young Parent Logic Model that we identified as most relevant to that goal. Below we propose several policy and practice changes rooted in empirical research or our collective practice experience. The implications are organized around the eight determinants we have focused on in this paper. Consistent with the social-ecological perspective on which the Young Parent Logic Model is based, these proposed changes address individual, relationship, community, and societal level factors.

Before describing these potential policy and practice changes, we want to emphasize three important points. First, efforts to increase postsecondary educational attainment among parents in and aging out of foster care may focus on determinants in the Young Parent Logic Model other than the ones we focused on in this paper. Second, achieving other goals outlined in the Young Parents Logic Model may be critical to increasing postsecondary educational attainment. And third, although higher education administrators can implement some of the policy and practices changes, we propose, a a social-ecological perspective calls for changes to be implemented at individual, relationship, community, and societal levels and by child welfare professionals, foster parents and other caregivers, and secondary educational institutions.

Positive Messages About the Benefits of Postsecondary Education

It is important for young parents in or aging out of foster care to receive clear messages about the benefits of postsecondary education, not only for themselves but also for their children. Some may not understand the value of a college degree or know about the opportunities it can offer. This may be particularly important for young parents whose family members did not go to college. The message about the value of postsecondary education should come from both education systems (e.g., teachers, guidance counselors, tutors, school administrators) and child welfare systems (e.g., caseworkers, independent living service providers, other child welfare professionals, and foster parents). Postsecondary educational options should be presented so that young parents can make an informed decision about whatever pathway they pursue. Postsecondary education should be normalized and included in discussions with caregivers, as well as child welfare, legal, and educational professionals. Equally important, young people in foster care should be given an opportunity to attend high-performing schools that expect students to pursue postsecondary education and help them navigate the college and financial aid application processes.

Development of and Motivation to Pursue Long-Term Educational and Professional Goals

Young parents in or aging out of foster care should also be encouraged to develop and pursue postsecondary educational goals by caseworkers, independent living service providers, other child welfare professionals, and foster parents. This can start while young people are in foster care and could involve taking young parents on tours of college campuses and sharing information about their postsecondary educational options. Child welfare agencies can employ educational liaisons to help young parents in foster care make a postsecondary educational plan. They can also connect young people in foster care to federally funded programs like Upward Bound, which provides educational supports (e.g., academic instruction, tutoring, counseling, mentoring, cultural enrichment, and work-study) to help prepare students for college (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). Upward Bound programs can be designed specifically to serve students who are in or aging out of foster care.

Once enrolled in postsecondary education, it is important for young parents in and aging out of care to continue developing their long-term educational and professional goals. This can occur through academic advising where students develop their course of study and map their progress to graduation. Campus support programs also can play a role in the parents in and aging out of care solidifying their educational and professional goals. Some of this may be through partners and groups across the institution such as career centers, student groups related to professions, or mentoring initiatives.

Supportive Relationships with Individuals Who Support Educational Attainment

Young parents in or aging out of foster care need people in their lives who support their goals for postsecondary educational attainment and will advocate on their behalf. These individuals, who may include caseworkers, independent living service providers, other child welfare professionals, foster parents, teachers, guidance counselors, tutors, or school administrators, can be an important source of encouragement and knowledge about the college and financial aid application process. Ideally, other caring adults who have relational permanency with young parents in and aging out of foster care (e.g., natural and formal mentors) will echo similar messages about the value of postsecondary education.

Development of Positive Connection to and Engagement with Educational Institutions

Student parents in or aging out of foster care need to feel connected to the educational institutions they attend. One way to promote this sense of connection is through campus support programs that serve students who have experienced foster care. These programs can become more inclusive of young parents by, for example, training staff to support student parents and offering programs specific to student parents.

Equally important, educational institutions should normalize being a student parent and being a student who is in or aging out of foster care. Information about the services and programs the institution offers to address the needs of these populations could be included in promotional materials and as part of orientation. Student parents in or aging out of foster care may also feel more engaged if colleges and universities offer child-friendly activities and family-friendly events. Efforts to engage parents in or aging out of foster care with postsecondary educational institutions can begin before they enroll in college Pre-college programs, like the Fostering Academics, Mentoring Excellence (FAME) residential summer camp program at Michigan State University (MSU), are designed to help prepare young people in foster care for the transition from high school to college by exposing them to a campus environment (Day et al., 2018; Kirk & Day, 2011).

Access to and Use of Community-Based, School-Based or Other Social Services

Postsecondary educational institutions offer a wide range of services and supports to promote their students’ success. They can also partner with local public agencies or community-based organizations that provide such resources to parents and their children. Some of these services and supports may be especially beneficial to young parents, including those who are in or aging out of foster care and may have limited access to other resources once they exit the child welfare system. Information about these services and supports—including information about how to access them—should be provided as part of student orientation. Campus support programs could also help connect parenting students with these services and supports.

One of the most important resources student parents need access to if they are to be successful is childcare. Without flexible, high-quality, and affordable childcare, parents with young children cannot pursue postsecondary education. This may be especially true for parents who are in or aging out of foster care and cannot rely on family members to safely care for their children. When possible, campus-based childcare centers should give priority access to or reserve slots for student parents who are in or aging out of foster care. The Child Care Access Means Parents in School (CCAMPIS) program provides federal funding to postsecondary educational institutions that offer campus-based childcare to low-income students (United States Department of Education, 2021). Alternatively, student parents who are in or aging out of foster care could be given vouchers that they could use to access childcare near campus.

Living in Safe Environment Free of Violence

Student parents in or aging out of foster care need safe, stable, and affordable housing for themselves and their children to successfully pursue postsecondary education (Shpiegel, Day, et al., 2021; Shpiegel, Fleming, et al., 2021). Priority for on-campus housing should be given to students who are parents and their children and that housing should be available year-round. However, few colleges or universities offer campus-based family housing for undergraduate students (Brown & Nichols, 2012; McCarthy, 2021).

When on-campus housing is not available, colleges or universities should consider partnering with community-based housing providers or landlord associations to reserve and/or subsidize near-campus housing options for student parents. Another option would be to give young parents pursuing postsecondary education priority access to Family Unification Program (FUP) vouchers. FUP is a federally funded program that provides Housing Choice Vouchers (HCVs) for up to 36 months to young people, ages 18 to 24 years old and who have exited foster care, or will exit foster care within 90 days, and are homeless or at risk for homelessness (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, n.d.).

Maintenance of Physical and Mental Health and Well-Being

Colleges and universities should offer parenting classes that educate student parents in or aging out of foster care about child development and positive parent–child relationships and parent support groups that connect parents to each other and provide opportunities for parents to ask questions, share concerns and provide mutual support. Equally important, these student parents need access to contraception, given the high prevalence of rapid, repeat births among young mothers in or aging out of care (Shpiegel, Day, et al., 2021; Shpiegel, Fleming, et al., 2021), and to mental health services, given the high percentage of young mothers in foster care with a mental health diagnosis (Eastman, & Putnam-Hornstein, 2019).

Campus-based health and counseling centers could facilitate access to both. However, the majority of the campus health centers that bill insurances do not accept government insurance including Medicaid (Abelson et al., 2020). The Affordable Care Act (ACA) requires states to provide Medicaid coverage to young people who aged out of foster care until age 26. Students who have Medicaid coverage through this ACA provision may not be able to access health and mental healthcare services from campus-based health and counseling centers unless these centers apply to become Medicaid providers in their respective states. Ideally, student parents in and aging out of foster care would be able to access campus-based health and mental health services for themselves and their children.

Consistent, Equitable Enforcement of Title IX Policies and Appropriate Accommodations

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 is a Federal civil rights law in the United States that prohibits discrimination based on sex in educational programs and activities, which includes pregnancy and parental status. All educational institutions receiving federal funds must comply with Title IX. Title IX provides several protections specifically for students who are parenting. Educational institutions are also required to have Title IX policies and procedures and a Title IX coordinator. Student parents who are in or aging out of foster care, as well as faculty and staff, should be educated about these protections. Student parents may also need training on how to advocate for themselves when it comes to their needs as parents (e.g., communicating with a professor about having to miss class to care for a sick child, accommodations).

Future Research

Additional research is needed on postsecondary educational attainment among parents in and aging out of foster care. Researchers could use qualitative methods to better understand the experiences of young parents in or aging out of foster care who choose to pursue postsecondary education including their decision about which school to attend and how relevant experiences align with the Young Parents Logic Model. Studies could explore similarities and differences between the experiences of young mothers and young fathers and between young people who are parenting on their own and those who co-parenting. Researchers could use quantitative methods to examine the factors that predict enrollment, retention, and graduation among young parents in and aging out of foster care or to examine the effect of postsecondary education on key outcomes (e.g., employment and earnings). They could also study postsecondary educational attainment among young parents in or aging out of foster care outside the United States. Finally, given the lack of evidence-based interventions for this population, researchers should prioritize evaluating programs designed to increase postsecondary educational attainment among parents in and aging out of foster care

Conclusion

Compared to their peers, young people in and aging out of foster care in the United States have high rates of early parenting and lower rates of postsecondary educational attainment. Promoting postsecondary education among parents in and aging out of foster care has the potential to change their lives as well as the lives of their children. The Young Parents Logic Model (Desiderio et al., 2020) provides a useful framework for thinking about how to increase postsecondary educational attainment among young parents who are in or aging out of foster care. By highlighting the determinants of postsecondary educational attainment, the model can help identify changes in policy and practice that are needed to ensure that parents in and aging out of foster care are encouraged to pursue postsecondary education, connected to the educational institutions they attend, and have access to the services and supports they need to succeed.