For many, the societal tenor and climate of the United States is fraught with exhaustion and fear for the future (Lerer et al., 2020). Politically and culturally divided, Americans express very different views regarding what issues should be considered most pressing; from immigration to health care, sexism to gun violence, finding common ground across party lines has become increasingly difficult (Pew Research Center, 2018). In the midst of this new, hyper-partisan reality is a generation of young people developing both their individual and collective identities. As they step into a burgeoning political consciousness, many adolescents and young adults have been a central part of both conversation and action in the powerful social movements that have sprung up over the last few years: Black Lives Matter, #MeToo, and the various efforts to pass gun control measures in the wake of school shootings in Parkland, Florida and elsewhere (Hope et al., 2016; Kinery, 2020; The Lancet, 2018).

Maturing into adulthood during a time of national upheaval may have an impact on development and is an area in need of further exploration and research (Liu et al., 2019; Shanahan, 2000). In addition to managing these current macro-level stressors, many adolescents must also cope with the various individual and societal factors that have always existed—trauma, poverty, racism and more. Furthermore, they must navigate common developmental issues that all adolescents contend with such as sexual identity, relationships, school and choices about their career and future (Rogers, 2019).

By applying a risk and resilience lens, as well as an understanding of how collective and individual self-efficacy supports psychological well-being, social workers working with young people in schools can be more supportive in guiding them through this particular moment in history—a time where self-empowerment and the ability to self-advocate appears quite necessary, particularly for those young people who are part of historically marginalized groups. Helping adolescents move from self-regulation and self-efficacy to activism and advocacy may be another step in the direction of resilience and healing in a tense political and social climate. Schools are an ideal setting to encourage the development of such awareness and skills, and school social workers are the ideal people to lead their students in developing moral identities, critical thinking abilities and in identifying ways to make an impact on their community and the world (To, 2007). This paper will address particular risk factors that adolescents with marginalized identities grapple with and that impact their development. Additionally, it will explore the importance of building self-efficacy in order to support resilience, particularly during a time of national division. Finally, using case examples this paper will demonstrate the important role that school social workers can play in this process.

Adolescent Development

Adolescence is a time of significant development on multiple levels; the physical, emotional, moral, social and cognitive growth during this time is substantial (Wigfield et al., 2005). As a result of hormonal changes, significant brain plasticity and experience-based socio-emotional development, adolescence is also a period of great vulnerability (Broderick & Jennings, 2012). Particular ways of regulating emotion, handling stress and thinking about oneself or the world may become ingrained during this time, as the frontal and parietal cortices—the areas of the brain that handle executive functioning—go through considerable change and growth (Broderick & Jennings, 2012). Stress and trauma can inhibit the cognitive and social development that occurs during this stage, causing young people to become more isolated, have less ability to assess safety, are more inclined towards disruptive and/or aggressive behaviors, and are negatively impacted in areas of cognitive functioning such as working memory (Frydman & Mayor, 2017). Early developmental trauma, including attachment issues with a primary caregiver, can impede the ability to self-regulate, manage stress and can decrease an individual’s sense of agency over oneself and one’s environment (Kain & Terrell, 2018).

Adolescents are under an incredible and observable level of stress, particularly if they are from under-resourced, oppressed or low-income communities (APA, 2018; Hamilton-Mason & Halloran, 2017). In addition to school-related requirements and expectations, young people often take on family and household obligations, such as caring for younger siblings or contributing financially by working a part-time job. If they are able to gain access to college, financial challenges and immigration status may prevent them from completing their degree (Bosma et al., 2019). Additionally, young people from historically oppressed communities can have greater risk of exposure to community violence, drug use, sexual violence and gang-related activity (Darawshy & Haj-Yahia, 2018; Huang et al., 2020). On a macro level, the impacts of racism, sexism, homophobia and other forms of oppression can contribute to young people becoming more vulnerable to mental health issues such as depression (English et al., 2014). The various risks that adolescents encounter during this stage of their life require those who work with them to consider what factors—both internal and external—can be developed in order to build their resilience (Bosma et al., 2019; Masten et al., 2008).

Marginalized Young People in the United States Today

According to recent data by the American Psychological Association, young people between the ages of 15 and 21, known as “Generation Z”, are the most likely cohort to report mental health issues (APA, 2018). When asked about their concerns regarding the current state of our nation and political climate, this same group identified a number of topics that cause them to worry about the future of the country, including gun violence, sexual harassment, immigration and climate change (APA, 2018). They also expressed anxiety regarding financial situations, housing stability, and health-related issues. In an age of political division and what feels like incessantly distressing news headlines, adolescents are feeling the burden on their mental health.

These fears about the future of our country are not without substance, particularly for people of color and other marginalized groups. Since its 2016 campaign, the previous administration made clear overtures of their desire to roll back existing rights for transgender individuals, as well as Latinx youth and/or their families, among many other groups (Hassett-Walker, 2019; Williams, 2019). In October 2018, the Department of Health and Human Services came under scrutiny as they considered adopting a legal definition of sex that is only biologically based and does not consider a person’s gender identity and/or experience (Meckler et al., 2018). Former President Trump raised the possibility of ending birthright citizenship via executive order, thereby ensuring that children of immigrants would be unable to gain access to the same rights as those whose parents were born in the United States (Davis, 2018). Though condemned by people across the political spectrum, this proposal triggered widespread fear, particularly among children of immigrants who have often been victims of hateful rhetoric by the president and sectors of the media (Wolf, 2018).

Although the United States is increasingly comprised of people of color, and young people are increasingly identifying outside of traditional gender norms, these attacks by those in power can cause lasting damage to historically marginalized groups (Flaskerud & Lesser, 2018; Wray-Lake et al., 2018). LGBTQ youth are more likely to experience severe mental health issues and are prone to suicidality; in particular, transgender people are at the greatest risk of suicidal ideation and attempts, with 40% of respondents in a recent study reporting at least one attempt during their lifetime (National Center for Transgender Equality, 2017). Given the vulnerability of the LGBTQ population, it is believed that steps taken at the national level to further marginalize them will only add to the distress they experience (Flaskerud & Lesser, 2018). Similarly, Latinx youth in California felt the impact of Trump’s election on their sense of safety and future orientation (Wray-Lake et al., 2018). Those surveyed expressed fear and anxiety, as well as concern about whether their families would be safe and/or if they needed to make alternative plans for their future. While some voiced the desire to become more civically engaged, others articulated feelings of hopelessness and a lack of self-efficacy (Wray-Lake et al., 2018). In order to build resilience and combat the negative impact of the policies and rhetoric currently in the public space, young people can connect to their own ethical principles and should be supported in positive self-development that underscores self-efficacy.

Adolescent Resilience

The study of resilience views people within the context of environmental and individual stressors, while taking into account the protective factors they possess which help them overcome these stressors. Resilience can be defined as how people respond to trauma and stress and the level to which they are able to continue normal functioning under difficult circumstances (Greene, 2008; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998. This framework acknowledges human beings’ inherent adaptability in an attempt to identify why some people are able to overcome adversity and others are not, potentially leading to unhealthy coping behaviors (Greene, 2008).

There are various personality traits and skills that may support an adolescent’s resilience. It is believed that developing self-regulation skills is a vital necessity of a teenager’s ability to achieve success in various areas later in life; as Steinberg (2014) writes, “people who score high on measures of self-regulation complete more years of school, earn more money and have higher-status jobs, and are more likely to stay happily married”—they are able to demonstrate resilience in the face of difficulties and make progress despite them (p. 121). Helping children and adolescents build their ability to self-reflect and self-regulate remains an important component of clinical work with this age population (Masten, 2013). It may also be a way to increase their self-efficacy and eventually, their ability to take action in response to the societal concerns they hold (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005).

Other protective factors for young people include intrapsychic qualities like positive outlook and a sense of self-efficacy, and relationship-based elements such as parent involvement, close relationships with supportive adults, and low discord in the home (Masten & Reed, 2002). For young people exposed to racial discrimination, an additional protective factor may be “positive racial identity”—or a sense of pride and positive association in their own ethnicity or race, despite societal messages to the contrary (Miller & MacIntosh, 1999). Additionally, affiliation with many different types of social groups, including extracurricular activity groups, may have a positive impact on resilience (Koni et al., 2019).

Self-efficacy and Advocacy

The presence of certain attributes, including self-efficacy, has been shown to increase a young person’s ability to overcome adversity (Masten, 2008; Masten, 2011; Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012). According to psychologist Alfred Bandura who helped coin the term, self-efficacy is defined as belief in one’s ability to have agency or control over one’s progress in life (Bandura, 1993). Related to other self-processes, such as regulation and awareness, self-efficacy is often correlated with positive development in both youth and adults (Masten, 2013). The degree to which a child demonstrates self-efficacy beliefs is associated with their cognitive skill development and academic achievement; whereas in adults, low self-efficacy is connected to depression, and difficulty managing complex decision-making, demonstrating its importance in psychological well-being (Bandura, 1993; Schonfeld, 2019). Additionally, early attachment style can influence levels of self-efficacy in adulthood, impacting ability to connect with career opportunities and more; those with an anxious or insecure attachment have been shown to have lower levels of self-efficacy and are less likely to self-advocate in the job market (Wright, 2017).

Furthermore, research has shown that, in addition to individual efficacy, a community’s sense of collective-efficacy—or their belief in a shared sense of purpose and ability to work together—also impacts young people’s development and safety (Darawshy & Haj-Yahia, 2018; Ohmer, 2016). One recent study demonstrated that weaker collective-efficacy is correlated with more antisocial and violent behavior among adolescents (Ichikawa et al., 2017). While it is possible that white and/or affluent communities may also experience low collective-efficacy, it is important to consider the ways in which oppression and marginalization of particular groups and communities leads to lower levels of social capital and collective-efficacy. As Ohmer (2016) writes, “poverty… and residential instability lead to less collective-efficacy, but social capital leads to more collective-efficacy and subsequently, less neighborhood violence, crime, and disorder” (p. 683). When a community is faced with structural conditions that make life harder—such as racism, lack of access to health care, jobs and other needs—it becomes even more difficult to find solutions together, leading to further entrenchment in oppressive and traumatic systems. Nevertheless, work within the realm of positive youth development (PYD) has been shown to mitigate such effects of oppression, increasing adolescents’ sense of self and collective-efficacy (Sanders et al., 2015; Torres-Harding et al., 2018).

It is within the framework of the previously described theories of adolescent risk and resilience, their development of self and moral reasoning, as well as their self and collective efficacy that we can begin to consider how to provide opportunities for young people to combat the stress and trauma of the current political moment. PYD theory posits that rather than using a deficit lens to understand young people and deem them “at-risk”, individuals and programs working with youth should focus on their resilience, strengths and areas of potential (Kramer et al., 2020; Masten, 2014; Sanders et al., 2015). There is some evidence to suggest that encouraging development of self-efficacy through a PYD lens and an emphasis on civic-engagement and self-advocacy will mitigate the negative consequences of the current political moment and the marginalization of certain groups.

Though limited, there is recent research that supports this idea; Darawashy and Haj-Yahia found that self and collective-efficacy functioned as a protective factor for youth following exposure to community violence in Israel (2018). Self and collective efficacy were negatively correlated with externalizing behaviors such as aggression and antisocial behaviors following assault and other violent experiences. Other research has shown that empowerment—defined as the sense of being able to take an active role in one’s own care—is an important quality in working with young people with mental health issues and can positively impact a youth’s recovery (Grealish et al., 2017; Kranke, 2019). Furthermore, the work of Benight and Bandura (2004) demonstrate that one’s perceived self-efficacy can play a large role in coping with trauma: “people who believe they can surmount their traumatization take a hand in mending their lives rather than have their lives dictated by the adverse circumstances” (p. 1144). This fact remains true across a range of trauma types, including domestic violence against women, a symptom of larger systems of oppression.

Supporting young people in advocacy and activism may provide a way to help build self-efficacy and resilience. As Sanders et al. (2015) writes, resilience is not “an outcome in itself, but rather a cluster of positive resources upon which youth can draw” (p. 3). It is also not a set of qualities but an “ecological process” (Sanders et al., 2015, p. 3). By connecting to a youth’s ethical principles, exploring root causes of oppression and identifying areas of action and change, advocacy-based programs and interventions can help young people develop into “justice-oriented citizens” (Torres-Harding et al., 2018, p. 4). The possibilities are vast, particularly at a time when so many young people are becoming more politically engaged (Kinery, 2020). With a PYD framework, those who work closest with young people—teachers, school staff, mental health providers and others—may be able to encourage social action.

The Role of School-Based Social Workers

When considering interventions in this area, it is important to ensure that self-efficacy can be encouraged in all youth, regardless of privilege or status. As schools are the most shared institution for young people all across racial, sexual, and socioeconomic spectrums, it would follow that school-based empowerment interventions would be the most efficient way to support this development. The question is how? How can schools encourage civic-engagement, empowerment and advocacy by young people when there is already so much being asked of teachers and school staff? While there are models and programs that exist, have they adapted to the current historical moment and to particular targeted communities and identity groups?

Schools provide a unique and important space for young people as they spend a large portion of their waking hours at school or engaged in school-related activities. It is clear that schools can be a place of retraumatization and disengagement via low expectations, microaggressions or overt oppressive words or actions (Baricevic & Kashubeck-West, 2019; English et al., 2020; Joseph et al., 2016). On the other hand, schools can provide comprehensive support for academic and social-emotional development, and a place where vulnerable youth feel connected and safe in the midst of difficult circumstances. In a recent study of new immigrant youth to the United States, researchers found that school engagement “made a significant positive contribution to mental health and resilience for youth above and beyond the effects of parental and peer attachment” (Venta et al., 2018, p. 138). Positive relationships with teachers also have an important impact on student outcomes and resilience (Sanders et al., 2016). For young people managing both in-school and outside challenges, having a teacher or staff member who recognizes their personal agency and treats them with respect positively impacts their ability to cope (Sanders et al., 2016).

While many kinds of youth-development professionals may be successful in engaging young people and helping them build a sense of self-efficacy, school social workers are at the nexus of individual and community, and have the capacity to identify and respond to the effects of structural inequity, as well as to help students build self-advocacy skills and encourage personal agency (Garcia-Reid & Reid, 2009). Historically, school social workers in the United States were often involved in community organizing, though their responsibilities within schools have shifted over time towards more individualized-treatment approaches (Callahan Sherman, 2016). Nevertheless, social workers’ understanding of adolescents’ developmental needs can guide them in creating empowerment and advocacy programming. Additionally, this type of student-centered advocacy intervention aligns with social work’s core value of social justice and its guiding principle of client self-determination; social workers are tasked with understanding and disrupting dynamics of power and oppression in whatever setting they work in, with the goal of building client empowerment and advocacy (NASW, 2018).

In order to move forward an agenda of empowerment for young people, however, social workers must also consider the role that they play in the lives of their students and in the life of a school. As Susan Stone (2017) asserts, the services that social workers in school settings provide run a risk of being “co-opted to serve school organizational goals…[such as] truancy intervention,” rather than addressing the more macro-level issues of equity and oppression (p. 1242). An advocacy and empowerment intervention can be a way of ensuring that social workers are not falling into a position of social control, but are actively ensuring that the voices of the vulnerable are strengthened.

School-Based Self-efficacy and Advocacy Interventions: Case Examples

In order to illustrate how school social workers can support adolescent self-efficacy in the face of trauma and oppression, the author presents two fictional case examples. The case examples are composites of numerous students the author has worked with at a small public high school in a large urban city. This high school is run as a “Community School''—a national model aimed at partnering lower-performing schools with local non-profits in order to provide additional social services (counseling, case management, crisis intervention, community organizing support). Staffed by 2 social workers and 2 social work interns, this particular high school program is designed to boost overall graduation rates, attendance and improve school culture. The principal and non-profit director share supervision of the program and its outcomes.

Both students described below have histories of trauma and have sought regular support from the social work department throughout their time there. They have been active in a variety of extracurricular activities, but have recently begun to take on more leadership roles and social-action oriented opportunities. Despite challenges they face as young people of color, such as microaggressions in the classroom, less access to high quality health care and education, they share a sense of personal agency, self-efficacy and a desire to help fellow students hone these qualities. These case examples demonstrate how a school community and social work program provided assistance for these young people to actualize these skills. Their words provide insight into how young people can think about their own self-efficacy and impact.

Case 1: Christina

Christina is a 16-year-old Black and cisgender-identifying female student. She has a history of depression, suicidal ideation and sexual assault. She has been consistently engaged in school-based individual therapy for the past 3 years and is a regular visitor to the school social workers’ office for case management and brief check-ins. As Christina has made progress in managing her depression and processing the trauma of sexual assault, she has taken on more leadership opportunities at the school, specifically around female identity and empowerment. After consulting with the school social worker and a social work intern assigned to support group development, Christina began a “Girls Empowerment” group where she helped lead a group of regularly-attending female students in discussion around self-esteem, identity, and feminism. The social work intern advised Christina on how to recruit students and organize an agenda for the meeting, as well as ensuring there would be available space and snacks for students. Additionally, during moments of self-doubt and feeling overwhelmed by a new challenge, the social work intern and team were able to help Christina identify her own strengths and reconnect with her mission. When asked, Christina shared that she wanted to start the group due to a perceived lack of unity among the female students and her own history of depression and anxiety. By sharing her own journey Christina believed she would be able to “empower” younger girls in her school and help prepare them for their futures in college and the workplace. When asked about how she felt the school setting for the group affected it, Christina explained that there were explicit connections she was able to make from her history classes regarding the importance of organizing and uplifting marginalized voices. She felt strongly that students needed a space to “gather our thoughts about the world” in order to change it for the better.

With the support of the school social work team, Christina was able to further her healing and her own sense of self-efficacy through organizing in her community and positively influencing her peers. While she first addressed her individual mental health needs through counseling and relationship-building at school, she was able to become a positive influence on others and strengthen her own sense of control of her environment. Rather than trauma causing disconnection, Christina was able to turn adversity into a pathway towards empathy for others. Following Christina’s lead, the social work team was able to help her outreach to other students, plan for in-person meetings and encouraged her to continue when she began doubting herself. Aware of her developmental needs, the team encouraged Christina to explore her identity, promoted her independence and encouraged her desire for leadership opportunities within a safe and supportive environment. Ultimately, through group affiliation and increased self-efficacy, experiences such as this will build her resilience against future challenges.

Case 2: James

James is a 16-year old cisgender male student who identifies as Latino. At the top of his class, James feels tremendous academic pressure, causing stress and anxiety. In 10th grade, James’ brother was shot and killed by a friend in what was deemed an accident. After the incident, the social work team reached out to James to offer counseling and support him through the aftermath of this horrific event. However, James seemed to channel a lot of his grief and trauma into organizing in an attempt to make meaning of it—perhaps a reflection of post-traumatic growth (PTG) or positive transformation in the face of adversity (Jirek, 2017). He took the lead on the school’s March for Our Lives walk-out and rally against gun violence. The school social worker helped James coordinate with administration to plan the event and to ensure that students would not be penalized for walking out. Later in the year, James felt moved by the public conversations about sexual assault happening in society and asked the team for help to conduct peer-led workshops to address victim-blaming in society. When asked whether young people can make an impact on society, James pointed to numerous examples from both history and recent events, such as the Parkland shooting, where young people have had a tremendous impact on how others, including the adults around them, see an issue. Furthermore, he emphasized the importance of future groups and organizing at the school being “peer-led” rather than adult-led, in order to ensure that when students “get inspired” that they “know that if you want to start something, you can.”

James’ desire for a high level of community engagement reflects the “justice-oriented citizen” stage of development referred to by Torres-Harding et al. (2018) and is an example of self-efficacy moving to collective-efficacy. As a young person of color impacted by violence, James was able to find an outlet for his grief through his school-based activities. By facilitating James in his organizing without taking over, the school social work team helped to build his own self-efficacy and self-esteem, and to process past trauma in the context of the current state of the world.

Implications for Practice

While the above case examples are limited and cannot be overgeneralized to a larger population without further research, there are some potential practice implications for school social workers working with marginalized youth. As was described previously, the socio-political climate for women and many minority groups grew more hostile under the previous administration as it attempted to role back various protections and policies for such groups, including immigrants and transgender individuals. Given this context, school social workers now have many openings for empowerment and advocacy interventions for students who identify as LGBTQ, those who are immigrants, who have experienced sexual assault, the effects of gun violence and more. It is imperative that they avail themselves of such possibilities, in order to fulfill the mission and values of the profession.

School-based social workers should seize opportunities to expose young people to information, history and experiences that will support the development of their values and that can model the type of empowerment that may be beneficial for them. On an individual level, social workers can provide psychoeducation and training in self-advocacy skills within the classroom and with adults the young person might come into contact with. This is a relevant skill for all young people, but particularly for those who may have additional barriers or disabilities. Additionally, school social workers should seek to create a warm, supportive and non-judgmental environment in which all students feel accepted and cared for. Within this space, social workers can create opportunities for young people to have voice and choice via formal (therapeutic interventions) and informal activities and interactions, such as decorating the office or offering ideas for the types of groups offered to the school community.

When students feel powerless within their learning environments they are more likely to become disengaged; for example, some Latinx students may be reticent to speak out about injustices in the educational system due to cultural beliefs about the role of young women and/or young people (Garcia-Reid & Reid, 2009). School social workers can support collectivity and shared affiliation amongst students—including Latinx and LGBTQ students—through groups, workshops and less formal spaces and activities, may also help build self-esteem and self-efficacy. Research has shown that reflecting cultural strengths and pride can increase self-esteem among students of color (Garcia-Reid & Reid, 2009). School social workers should not shy away from addressing these issues of race, identity, and discrimination with their students in therapy or less formal settings. Many students may feel even more isolated or alone in their experiences during this polarized political moment and may need even more trust-building, safety and validation (APA, 2018; Wray-Lake, 2018).

Social workers can also assist students in organizing and participating in social justice projects and activities. For youth of color and other marginalized youth, participating in such projects supports self-efficacy and self-esteem. By organizing a social activism-focused event or project, students go through the process of developing a goal, taking actions to reach that goal and reflecting on what worked and what did not (Torres-Harding et al., 2018). This experience leads to a sense of empowerment, allowing a young person or a group to “exert one’s influence or power to address community injustices and problems” (Torres-Harding et al., 2018, p. 5). Helping students start an LGBTQ support group or an education campaign around the rights of immigrants can be both academically and socio-emotionally beneficial. Learning about other young people who have had an impact on society or their environment can provide modeling and motivation; the youth-led movement against gun violence—March for Our Lives—is one such example that young people can look to when searching for inspiration. Others include the International Indigenous Youth Council—a youth group whose campaign against the Dakota Access oil pipeline led to mass, grassroots movement known as Standing Rock. These recent examples demonstrate the possibilities for young people coming together during what may seem like a hopeless political moment. Students may also benefit from creating or attending events such as protests, rallies, and other trainings outside of school where they can witness possibilities for community-based social change, empowerment, and advocacy. Finally, social workers can and should also play a role on a systems-level inside of the school, advocating for student voice and ensuring that administration and faculty are considering the cultural needs of different groups. With immigration policy in flux, school staff should be trained on how to respond to students who may be in the midst of crisis due to an immigration status issue in their family. Staff should also be conversant in best practices of creating LGBTQ-inclusive classrooms and school environments. Similarly, specific support for all other historically marginalized groups must be made a priority, and social workers must be at the forefront of ensuring that this information and training is being implemented.

Conclusion

Young people face an incredible array of challenges that may be exacerbated by the political climate created during a conservative-led administration. The development of self-regulation and self-efficacy can be protective factors against trauma, discrimination, and other stressors. Those who work with adolescents—particularly adolescents who are members of racial and sexual minority groups—should aim to support them in this development. School social workers are in a prime position to do so, given their clinical knowledge and connections to individuals, groups and communities. To be most effective, it is imperative that school social move towards facilitating social action rather than perpetuating systems that already exist to keep already-marginalized young people at the sidelines. All school staff should aim to support the development of self-efficacy in adolescents—a quality that will allow for increased resilience and the ability to make change in this challenging time for society.