Introduction

Nationally, the outcomes for youth aging out of foster care are dismal, although policy changes allowing youth to remain in care until 21 years of age have shown some positive impacts for former foster youth (Courtney et al., 2011). Children leaving foster care often lack the familial supports enjoyed by youth who have not been in foster care. Most children leaving foster care do not have the financial, medical, or social support tools necessary to bridge this transition successfully, placing a significant burden on youth leaving care (Courtney, Piliavin, Grogan, & Nesmith, 2001; Kools & Kennedy, 2003; Simms, Dubowitz, & Szilagyi, 2000).

The system of foster care is geared toward protection. As a result, many foster care youth are unable to participate in the typical rite-of-passage activities associated with children living at home (Bruskas, 2008). For many foster care youth, obtaining a driver’s license, working after school, staying the night at a friend’s house, or simply hanging out at the mall is beyond the scope of what they are allowed (Scannapieco, 2011). While these rules are designed to keep them safe, they also limit foster care youth’s ability to become more self-sufficient, contributing to them having a difficult time once they age out of care.

It is a national responsibility to provide the best possible care for youth deemed unsafe living with their nuclear families. Acting in loco parentis, the State’s responsibility is to provide youth with the necessary resources, developmentally and physically, to navigate the transition from child to emerging adult successfully. The primary goal of the child welfare system is to provide life-long connections to those youth who are in custody (Miller, 2009). The best methods for achieving this goal include kinship care, adoption, and more family-like placements. Youth who are institutionalized or in group homes do not do as well, and are less likely to form the life-long connections necessary to succeed in adulthood (Kids Count, 2011; Zuravin, Benedict, & Stallings, 1999).

In order to provide this care, a systemic examination of factors that influence a youth’s overall self-sufficiency is needed. Child Protective Services only has control over the factors within its purview, such as number of placements, more home-like placements, number of workers, length of time in care, and receipt of independent living services. Once the factors are identified that negatively impact youth’s self-sufficiency, specific systemic changes can be made to improve youth’s overall self-sufficiency. This article presents a study addressing this need. Research findings of a program aimed at assisting youth in achieving success in adulthood are presented and implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Outcomes for Youth Who Have Experienced Foster Care

Educational Outcomes

Too many youth do not have a high school diploma or GED when they emancipate from care (Bruskas, 2008; Courtney & Dworsky, 2005; Courtney, Dworsky, Cusick, Havlicek, Perez, & Keller, 2007; Courtney et al., 2011; Hudson & Nandy, 2012; Paulson, 2010; Pecora, 2012; Scannapieco, Connell-Carrick, & Painter, 2007; Wagner & Wonacott, 2008). While still in care, these youth had many educational deficits ranging from low standardized test scores to multiple transfers between schools (Day, Dworsky, Fogarty & Damashek, 2011; Pecora, 2012; Ryan, Hernandez & Herz, 2007; Sullivan, Jones & Mathiesen, 2010). Educational deficits increase the likelihood of challenges in a number of areas. Former foster youth experience financial problems, and between 12 and 30 % received public assistance (Paulson, 2010; Pecora et al., 2003; Salazar, 2013; Wagner & Wonacott, 2008). Additionally, 11–46 % of former foster youth report being homeless for at least one night since leaving substitute care (Dworsky & Courtney, 2009, 2010; Dworsky, Napolitano, & Courtney, 2013; Fowler, Toro, & Miles, 2009; Paulson, 2010; Wagner & Wonacott, 2008, Scannapieco et al., 2007, Pecora et al., 2003).

Employment Outcomes

Many former foster youth report having difficulty finding and maintaining employment. Reports on employment suggest that on average only one-third to one-half of youth out of substitute care are employed, but they do not identify full time vs. part time employment (Courtney et al., 2007; Naccarato, Brophy, & Courtney, 2010; Scannapieco et al., 2007). Moreover, Naccarato et al. (2010) found that former foster youth do not earn enough to take them out of poverty. On average, former foster care earned $8000 compared to a national average of $18,300 (Courtney, Dworsky, Lee, & Raap, 2010; Naccarato et al., 2010). African American youth reported earnings much less that European American youth (Naccarato et al., 2010).

Mental and Physical Health Outcomes

Furthermore, many youth transitioning out of care experience a preponderance of mental health and physical health issues. Foster youth are significantly more likely than non-foster youth to have mental health, physical health, and behavioral problems. Studies suggest more than 50 % of foster youth have at least one mental health diagnosis, physical health problem or behavioral problem (Scannapieco et al., 2007; Pecora et al., 2003). Additionally, the literature suggests that between 25 and 75 % of girls will either have already had a pregnancy or will have a pregnancy within 4 years of emancipating (Scannapieco et al., 2007; Pecora et al., 2003). A plethora of research also suggests that emancipated youth do not have adequate access to either mental health or physical health care (Allen & Bissell, 2004; Jaudes, 2012; McMillen & Raghaven, 2009; Pecora, 2010; Salazar, 2013; Wagner & Wonacott, 2008).

Health issues for foster youth are exacerbated by significantly higher drug and alcohol use and dependency than the comparable non-foster youth population (Pilowsky & Wu, 2006). New York State Psychiatric Institute found that former foster youth are 1.5 times more likely to use alcohol, 3.8 times more likely to have alcohol dependence, 2.4 times more likely to use illicit drugs, and 4.8 times more likely to have drug dependence. Keller, Salazar & Courtney (2010) found that two-thirds (68.7 %) of the diagnoses associated with alcohol occurred after foster care and only one-fifth (19.2 %) occurred before foster care involvement.

Criminality Outcomes

Finally, former foster youth are more likely to engage in illegal behavior and are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system. Courtney et al. (2007) report youth emancipated from care are more likely to be involved in a gang, damaging property, and engaging in group fighting. Additionally, other studies suggest an increased likelihood of engaging in criminal activity, being arrested, and being convicted of at least one crime (Paulson, 2010; Ryan et al., 2007; Scannapieco et al., 2007; Synder, & Medeiros, 2013; Wagner & Wonacott, 2008). According to Paulson (2010), almost sixty percent of the male youth had been convicted of a crime.

Given the poor outcomes for youth aging out of foster care, and the small body of literature on what works to improve outcomes, this study aims to fill an important gap in the research by examining a program developed to improve outcomes for youth aging out of care.

Preparation for Independent Living

Preparing foster youth to live independently can be a daunting task. Many of today’s youth who are not in foster care are ill prepared and unable to achieve independence by their 18th birthdays (Settersten & Ray, 2010). Foster youth must overcome additional obstacles. As the literature review above demonstrates, foster youth struggle academically and some do not have a high school diploma or GED at emancipation. As a result, youth do not do well in the employment market and many live at or below the poverty level. This lack of success creates problems maintaining adequate and stable housing. In response, foster care agencies strive to provide independent living skills to foster youth either themselves or through their foster parents. Independent living skills can take the form of workshops or classroom activities; allowing youth to gain employment experience while still in foster care and start to manage their money; foster parents including youth in many of the daily chores and activities that they will need to accomplish independently, such as cleaning, laundry, food shopping, and cooking; to providing extended care in the form of supervised independent living placements.

Several researchers have found that additional training and/or supervised independent living programs provide more opportunity for youth to practice independent living skills while still being in a supportive environment (Freundlich & Avery, 2006; Freundlich, Avery, & Padgett, 2007; Reilly, 2003). For many youth, the more training received, the better the outcome. With additional training, youth become more satisfied with their living arrangements, feel better prepared for living independently, gain more satisfaction overall with current living situations, and experience less trouble with the law (Reilly, 2003).

On the other hand, some researchers found a lack of evidence suggesting that additional independent living training impacted long-term self-sufficiency. Dworsky and Courtney (2009) found independent living training not to be significantly associated with housing security. Based on the qualitative study findings, many advocates for youth in foster care believe a more viable option for many youth transitioning to independence is to increase youth’s connectedness with parents, relatives, and other adults in their lives. These connections could also provide youth the support necessary to navigate the transition from care to self-sufficiency (Freundlich & Avery, 2006; Freundlich et al., 2007). Finally, despite receiving independent living-skills training, many youth do not believe they are prepared for the reality of living independently. Courtney et al. (2001) found that although 76 % of the youth in their sample received independent living-skills training, approximately 33 % did not feel prepared for independent living after 1 year post-discharge.

Given the ongoing need to improve upon services for youth in foster care, the next section presents a study examining the ecological predictors associate with youth experiencing more success at the time of leaving foster care.

Method

Program Characteristics

The Transition Resource Action Center (TRAC) is the key provider of Preparation for Adult Living (PAL) services for a large urban/suburban area in Texas. TRAC provides PAL services under contract to the State of Texas to an identified subset of youth who are still in substitute care, as well as to youth who have already emancipated from the foster care system. Institutional review board approved the use of secondary data research for this study.

As of August 2014, there were 30,153 children and youth in substitute care in Texas (Texas Department of Family and Protective Services [TDFPS], 2015). The average length of time an emancipating foster youth spends in substitute care is 63.3 months, or over 5 years. Substitute care includes foster homes (run by the TDFPS and other child placing agencies), residential treatment centers, emergency shelters, and other types of foster care, including kinship care, pending adoptive homes, juvenile detention, hospitals, and state schools. Almost 30 % of youth in substitute care (26.3 %), were 14 years of age or older (TDFPS, 2015).

In Fiscal Year 2014, a total of 1000 youth emancipated from paid foster care in the State of Texas (TDFPS, 2015). Youth ages 16 and older who are expected to emancipate or who have emancipated from foster care are eligible for certain transitional services provided by the State, called PAL services. PAL is designed to provide youth with the tools necessary to transition to independent living. Services include but are not limited to life-skills assessments, skills training, support services, and benefits and financial assistance

Participant Characteristics

To determine which TRAC clients to include in the study, only those youth who were both former foster youth and had received at least 10 h of Case Management services through TRAC between September 1, 2005 and August 31, 2010 were included. This eliminated youth for whom TRAC received a referral but the youth did not receive services.

Sampling Procedures and Size

Sample consisted of a nonrandom selection of foster youth who participated in PAL services. The TRAC database contains 329 cases. Approximately 169 youth (51.4 %) received TRAC services before they transitioned out of care (ILS youth), and 160 youth (48.7 %) began TRAC services after they left substitute care. The database includes 36 youth (10.9 %) as only receiving TRAC services before they transitioned out of care, 133 youth (40.4 %) as receiving both in-care and after care services, and 160 (48.6 %) as receiving TRAC services once they left substitute care for a sample size of 329.

Measurement

To determine outcomes, both TRAC’s Self-Sufficiency Matrix and case records were used. The Self-Sufficiency Matrix contains five domains: Education, Employability, Employment, Financial Literacy, and Shelter. Higher scores on the Self-Sufficiency Matrix indicate more stability within the domain. Scales for each predictor are calculated the same, so one unit increase is the same for each domain.

To assess internal consistency reliability of the Self-Sufficiency Scale, Cronbach’s alpha (α) and Split-Half Reliability was used. The Cronbach’s alpha was .801, suggesting the internal reliability of the measure to be good. Additionally, examining the split-half reliability, the Spearman-Brown Coefficient for equal length was .804 and for unequal length was .809, also indicating the internal reliability of the self-sufficiency scale to be good (Drake & Jonson-Reid, 2008; Rubin & Babbie, 2014).

The validity of the Self-Sufficiency Scale was examined for content and factorial validity. Content validity “refers to the degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included with the concept” (Rubin & Babbie, 2014, p. 200). The Self-Sufficiency Scale encompasses five key aspects of self-sufficiency: (a) education, (b) employability, (c) employment, (d) financial literacy, and (e) shelter. The education dimension examines the range of education possibilities from not attending school and does not have a GED to currently enrolled in either college or a vocational training program. Employability refers to having the skills necessary to obtain and maintain employment. This scale ranges from lacking the necessary skills for obtaining employment to being motivated and currently seeking employment with a resume, the necessary paperwork to apply for a job, adequate interviewing skills, and the ability to maintain work relationships. Employment ranges from being unemployed to maintaining full-time work for 6 or more months. Financial literacy refers to the level of understanding the participant has about basic money management and budgeting and ranges from lacking the understanding and/or skills to effectively manage money to using a budget and saving money. The final dimension is Shelter. The shelter domain includes being homeless to having safe and adequate housing for 6 or more months. Based on the literature review, these five dimensions adequately describe self-sufficiency.

Factorial validity is determined through the statistical procedure factor analysis. The Self-Sufficiency Scale was developed to be unidimensional; in other words, to only measure self-sufficiency. The factor analysis reported above confirmed that the scale is unidimensional. Although the literature suggests that factorial validity is similar to construct validity, further study of the scale is necessary to determine if it corresponds or not to other scales of self-sufficiency (Rubin & Babbie, 2014; Stapleton, 1997).

Analysis

Data were examined using descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate statistics. t tests were used to examine differences in outcomes between youth who began receiving services before they transitioned out of care and youth who began TRAC services after leaving care. t tests were also used to examine a change in overall Self-Sufficiency Matrix scores to determine if youth who were receiving TRAC services were improving. Furthermore, linear and stepwise regressions were conducted to determine which variables were predictive of scores on the Self-Sufficiency Matrix.

Research Design

A causal comparative research design was used, employing pre-existing data. Records were collected from both TRAC and Children’s Protective Services (CPS) databases. These records included demographic information such as age at last contact with TRAC (age was either youth’s last contact with TRAC for youth who had been discharged or the current age for youth who were still receiving services), gender, race, ethnicity, and last grade completed. Other variables retrieved were removal date, reason(s) for removal, age at exit from care, number of placements, number of workers, externalizing behaviors, internalizing behaviors, learning disability, physical health problems, types of activities, TRAC follow up notes, and TRAC’s Self-Sufficiency Matrix.

Externalizing behaviors are a youth’s outward behaviors, especially those behaviors in which a child interacts negatively with their environment. Examples of externalizing behaviors are ADHD, disruption, aggression, delinquency, or conduct disorder (Painter & Scannapieco, 2015). Whereas externalizing behaviors manifest outwardly, internalizing behaviors are exhibited as withdrawn, depressed, or anxious behaviors (Painter & Scannapieco, 2015). These behaviors are marked by affecting the youth’s internal environment rather than their external environment.

In the following results section only significant predictors will be presented. We do this so it is clear to the reader what predictors are most related to the outcome being discussed.

Results

The majority of TRAC clients were female (58.4 %), non-white (53.5 %), and not of Hispanic origin (84.5 %). Ages ranged from 16 to 25, with the average age being 20 years old. More than one-third (37.7 %) of TRAC youth were part of a sibling group. Moreover, several youth (5.2 %) were previously adopted and returned to CPS custody.

Almost one-third (31.9 %) of youth receiving TRAC services have completed High School or were working toward or had received a GED. The last grade completed ranged from a low of 4th grade to 12th grade/GED. The majority (n = 314, 95.4 %) of TRAC clients had completed at least some high school. Seventy-seven youth (23.4 %) were either enrolled or attending college, or enrolled in a vocational program. The majority of youth receiving TRAC services exhibited at least one externalizing behavior (n = 253, 68.4 %). Additionally, over 20 % (n = 156, 22.8 %) exhibited two or more externalizing problems.

Youth Characteristics Most Related to Outcomes

Multiple indicators including descriptive data were examined to determine which ones had the greatest impact on outcomes. A stepwise multiple regression models were used to determine which of these characteristics most were related to scores on the Self-Sufficiency Matrix. TRAC’s Self-Sufficiency Matrix has five domains: Education, Employment, Employability, Financial Literacy, and Shelter. The youth’s coach completes the Self-Sufficiency Matrix bi annually and uses the results to monitor the youth’s progress. The final matrix score was used for this study.

As shown in Table 1, four variables emerged as significant predictors of the Education score. Youth who were older at their last contact with TRAC had higher scores (b = .269, p < .001). Being part of a sibling group was also a predictor of scale scores: youth who were part of a sibling group had higher scores than youth who were not (b = .361, p < .01). Older youth and/or youth who are part of a sibling group scored higher in the Educational domain than younger youth who do not have siblings. Inversely, as the number of placements increases, educational domain scores decrease (b = −.049, p < .001). Finally, youth who were removed for physical neglect had lower scores (b = −.403, p < .05).

Table 1 Youth characteristics that are Predictors of Education scores
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The second set of analysis examined those characteristics of youth that predicted scores on the Employability Matrix. As shown in Table 2, four of the identified variables were significant predictors of scores, and of these, three variables were predictors of higher scores. The older a youth was at last contact with TRAC, the higher their employability scores (b = .165, p < .01). If the death of a care taker contributed to the removal of the youth, employability scores were higher (b = 2.502, p < .05). Additionally, youth who were removed for medical neglect had higher scores on the employability matrix (b = .785, p < .05). One variable was an indicator of lower scores: as the number of placements increases, employability matrix scores decrease (b = −.043, p < .01).

Table 2 Youth characteristics that are Predictors of Employability scores
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Thirdly, as shown in Table 3, two variables were found to be statistically significant predictors of higher Employment scores. First, as the age of the youth at their last contact with TRAC or as of August 31, 2009 increases, employment scores increase (b = .130, p < .001). Second, those youth who are of Hispanic origin have higher employment scores (b = .367, p < .01). These findings imply that the older a youth was at their last contact with TRAC and/or those of Hispanic origin have more stable employment. On the other hand, two variables were significant predictors of lower scores. As the number of placements increased, scores decreased (b = −.030, p < .001). Also, if the death of a care taker contributed to the removal of the youth, employment scores decreased (b = −1.366, p < .05).

Table 3 Youth characteristics that are Predictors of Employment scores
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Table 4 shows that one variable was a predictor of higher Financial Literacy Matrix scores. Youth who were removed for medical neglect had higher scores on the Financial Literacy Matrix (b = .705, p < .05). Two variables were predictors of lower Financial Literacy scores. As the number of youth placements increases, financial literacy scores decrease (b = −.035, p < .05). Also, youth who were removed, and whose parents refused to accept parental responsibility have lower scores (b = −.280, p < .05).

Table 4 Youth characteristics that are Predictors of Financial Literacy scores
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Three variables were shown to be predictors of youth scores on the Shelter Matrix (see Table 5). First, the older a youth was at their last contact with TRAC, the higher their scores on the Shelter Matrix (b = .338, p < .001). Second, youth who were removed for sexual abuse/risk had higher scores on their Shelter Matrix (b = .380, p < .05). One variable predicted lower scores: as the number of youth placements increases, shelter scores decrease (b = −.056, p < .001).

Table 5 Predictors of Shelter scores
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TRAC Services and Programs with Greatest Impact

Multiple indicators were examined to determine which service and program variables had the greatest impact on youth outcomes. The service variables identify the amount of time in minutes a coach spends on each activity. Program variables identify the program area in minutes in which the coach was working or youth was participating. A stepwise multiple regression models were used to determine which of the above characteristics are related to scores on the Self-Sufficiency Matrix.

The first set of analysis examined which variables were predictors of Education Matrix scores; as shown in Table 6, two program variables were found to be statistically significant predictors of scores. First, as time increases in planning for the future, education scores increase (b = .001, p < .001). Second, as time spent in classroom instruction increases, education scores decrease (b = −.003, p < .001). Employment was the second matrix examined. One activity variable and one program variable were shown to be predictors of youth scores on the Employment Matrix (see Table 6). As coaches spend more time communicating with and about youth, employment scores increase (b = 9.30, p < .05). These findings indicate increasing communication with youth will have positive benefits in the employment domain.

Table 6 Service and program variable predictors
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The third set of analyses examined which activity and program variables predicted scores on the Employability Matrix (see Table 6). Three variables were found to positively affect scores. As time spent with youth working on money management skills increases, Employability scores increase (b = .001, p < .01). Also, as time spent on transportation issues increases, scores increase (b = .003, p < .05). Finally, as client/mentor interaction time increases, scores increase (b = .000, p < .05). One variable was found to be a predictor of scores on the Financial Literacy Matrix (see Table 6). As time spent in client/mentor interaction increases, Financial Literacy matrix scores increase (b = .000, p < .01). Shelter was the fifth matrix examined. One variable was shown to be a predictor of youth scores on the Shelter Matrix (see Table 6). As coaches spend more time on health and safety skills, scores increase (b = .001, p < .01).

Discussion

Limitations

There were several limitations to this study. First, secondary data were used, and the validity and accuracy of the data could not be verified. Secondary data do not necessarily mean poor data; rather, the data set was incomplete. Because the data were secondary and many cases were missing and/or contained incomplete data, over 100 participants were dropped from the analysis. Although independent samples t test and Chi square results did not find a statistically significant difference between youth who were dropped and those who were retained on the variables of gender, ethnicity, and age removed from home, it cannot be said with certainty that no differences nor any disparities affected the results.

Additionally, scale may not reflect the nuances of the variables that made up self-sufficiency. Because the scale was made from a range of subjective outcomes, it is possible that the scale did not adequately reflect each of the dimensions of self-sufficiency. Furthermore, although the reliability of the overall scale was good, level of training staff received and the inter-rater reliability for scoring by staff are unknown. This could also negatively the reliability of the final instrument.

Discussion and Implications

The purpose of this study was twofold. First we wanted to examine youth characteristics associated with outcomes, and secondly to explore what program characteristics were correlated with outcomes. Findings indicate several factors influencing outcomes, which have implications for future practice and policy.

Consistently self-sufficiency was improved when youth had last contact with TRAC at an older age. With the Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997, youth may continue to receive services until they are 23 if in care, working, or going to an educational/vocational program (Adoption and Safe Families Act. P.L. 105–189; 1997). It will be important to continue to provide services to youth as they emerge as adults. Recently, human behavior theory has added a stage in development referred to as Emerging Adulthood (Arnett & Tanner, 2005). The findings of this study support the underlying premise of this developmental stage in that youth need a longer period of time to achieve self-sufficiency.

The number of placements had a negative relationship with all five outcomes. Findings from this study showed as the number of placements increased, it resulted in a negative effect on education, employability, employment, financial literacy, and shelter outcomes. These results suggest that youth with an unstable placement history have more difficulty maintaining employment. The literature suggests that the more placements a youth experiences is directly related to a youth’s employment status, with higher placement instability correlating with lower employment stability. Youth with a greater number of placements had more difficulty with employability skills, which is consistent with national outcomes. Results suggest that youth who had an unstable placement history and/or whose parents did not accept responsibility for them have more difficulty with financial literacy. Nationally, youth who experience a higher number of placements have increased financial insecurity. These findings suggest that youth who have an unstable placement history have more difficulty maintaining consistent housing.

Youth who had siblings placed with them, had better educational outcomes. Research has demonstrated youth who are placed with siblings have more favorable outcomes than youth who are not placed with siblings. This finding further supports the need for brothers and sister to be placed together and for the child welfare system to make every effort to do so.

Physical neglect as a reason for removal had a negative effect on educational outcomes; while removal for medical neglect, or being removed due to a caregiver’s death, had a positive relationship with employability and financial literacy. It may be youth who were removed for other reasons than abuse and neglect, did not experience as much emotional distress. Certainly a caregiver’s death or serious medical conditions are traumatic events, as is the removal from home, but the youth may not act out or internalize the event in the same way as trauma related to abuse.

Findings from the study revealed several service and program variables with the greatest impact on youth outcomes. Education scores increased as time increased in planning for the future and decreased as time spent in classroom instruction increased. Coaching was an important element to successful outcomes for youth. The more time coaches spend communicating and skill building, the more employment scores increased, as well as shelter scores,

Results suggest youth who spend more time goal setting and planning can expect higher educational achievement scores. Engagement by coaches also had a positive impact on youth outcomes. These service level elements have direct practice implications.

Preparation for adult living programs should begin services for youth in foster care at an earlier age and the model should include more one to one engagement with the youth in foster care. Increasing communication with youth will also have positive benefits in the employment domain. Employability scores increased when there was an increase in time spent with youth working on money management skills, time spent on transportation issues, and client/mentor interaction time. These results imply that working with youth on their money management skills, solving transportation issues, and providing a mentor positively impact skills necessary for finding and maintaining employment. Financial literacy scores also increased as time spent in client/mentor interaction increased, suggesting a mentoring relationship may positively influence a youth’s money management skills.

Conclusions

At a child welfare system level, an ideological shift away from permanency for youth who appear to be heading for aging out of foster care to a focus on independent living skills and supports is needed. While permanence is ideal, it is unrealistic to think every child will find a permanent home. Creating a program for these youth through a move into a semi-independent living situation with active and structured coaching, supports and services would benefit youth once they age out of state care completely (Courtney et al., 2001; Cushing, 2011; Tweddle, 2007). A continuum of services could be instituted for youth to learn the skills necessary to be self-sufficient would benefit this population. Youth could be taught budgeting; holding down stable employment; finishing school or obtaining a GED; attending a postsecondary institution; and the basic homemaking skills for doing laundry, cleaning, planning meals, and cooking. Additionally, such a program could entice some youth to remain in care longer because of receiving the support and guidance needed for successfully transitioning out of care and become self-sufficient.

In addition, a more diligent attempt to allow youth to be placed with siblings and to remain in longer-term stable placements, rather than undergoing multiple moves, would be helpful. If youth must move, arrangements for them to remain within the same school as the previous placement should be made for them to continue to participate in extracurricular activities, keep the same peer groups, and avoid academic disruption. Efforts by their caseworkers to maintain some semblance of stability could facilitate the feeling of continuity even through multiple moves between various foster homes (Schelble, Franks, & Miller, 2010; Strijker, Knorth, & Knot-Dickscheit, 2008; Zima et al., 2000).

Finally, further study comparing foster youth and vulnerable youth is necessary. Such study may allow for more fully understanding how foster youth fare as adults compared with other vulnerable youth populations. Additionally, The National Youth in Transition Database (NYTD) provides a national sample of former youth and a more complete understanding of the issues foster youth faced during care and once they attained independence (USHHS, 2012). Although the NYTD offers a step in the right direction toward tracking, it is not sufficient. The NYTD only provides three data points, at ages 17 (baseline), 19, and 21. At 21 years old, youth might have just transitioned out of foster care, thus the system fails to enable workers to track youth into emerging or young adulthood sufficiently to discern their self-sufficiency and levels of post foster care success. Although there are longitudinal studies involving tracking former foster youth, these studies are limited by both geography and program-type. Additional longitudinal studies are necessary to explore the ecological and developmental factors that influence self-sufficiency in foster youth during the transition from care to independence and the emergence of adulthood.