Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder

  • Review Article
  • Published:

From Nature Reviews Psychology

View current issue Sign up to alerts

Abstract

Executive function deficits have been reported in both autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, little is known regarding which, if any, of these impairments are shared in children with ADHD and those with ASD. In this Review, we provide an overview of the current literature with a critical eye toward diagnostic, measurement and third-variable considerations that should be leveraged to provide more definitive answers. We conclude that the field’s understanding of executive function profiles in ASD and ADHD is highly limited because most research on each of these disorders has failed to account for the possible co-occurrence and the presence of symptoms of the other disorder. A vast majority of studies have relied on traditional neuropsychological tests and informant-rated executive function scales that have poor specificity and construct validity, and most studies have been unable to account for the well-documented between-person heterogeneity within and across disorders. At present, the most parsimonious conclusion is that children with ADHD and/or ASD tend to perform moderately worse than neurotypical children on a broad range of neuropsychological tests. However, the extent to which these difficulties are unique to one of these disorders or shared, or are attributable to impairments in specific executive functions, remains largely unknown. We end with focused recommendations for future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1: Conceptual model of executive function components and working memory subprocesses.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edn (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).

  2. Polanczyk, G., de Lima, M. S., Horta, B. L., Biederman, J. & Rohde, L. A. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am. J. Psychiat. 164, 942–948 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Polanczyk, G. V., Willcutt, E. G., Salum, G. A., Kieling, C. & Rohde, L. A. ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 43, 434–442 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Boyle, C. A. et al. Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, 1997–2008. Pediatrics 127, 1034–1042 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Kogan, M. D. et al. Prevalence of parent-reported diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder among children in the US, 2007. Pediatrics 124, 1395–1403 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Federico, A. et al. Predictors of autism spectrum disorder and ADHD: results from the national survey of children’s health. Disabil. Health J. 17, 101512 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Aduen, P. A. et al. Social problems in ADHD: is it a skills acquisition or performance problem? J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 40, 440–451 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Kofler, M. J. et al. Neurocognitive and behavioral predictors of social problems in ADHD: a Bayesian framework. Neuropsychology 32, 344–355 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Ros, R. & Graziano, P. A. Social functioning in children with or at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 47, 213–235 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Pedreño, C., Pousa, E., Navarro, J., Pàmias, M. & Obiols, J. Exploring the components of advanced theory of mind in autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 2401–2409 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Grzadzinski, R., Dick, C., Lord, C. & Bishop, S. Parent-reported and clinician-observed autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): implications for practice under DSM-5. Molec. Autism 7, 7 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Locke, J., Shih, W., Kretzmann, M. & Kasari, C. Examining playground engagement between elementary school children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Autism 20, 653–662 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Gates, J. A., McNair, M. L., Richards, J. K. & Lerner, M. D. Social knowledge & performance in autism: a critical review & recommendations. Clin. Child. Fam. Psychol. Rev. 26, 665–689 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Demetriou, E. A., DeMayo, M. M. & Guastella, A. J. Executive function in autism spectrum disorder: history, theoretical models, empirical findings, and potential as an endophenotype. Front. Psychiat. 10, 753 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Kofler, M. J. et al. Reaction time variability in ADHD: a meta-analytic review of 319 studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33, 795–811 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Nigg, J. T. Annual research review: on the relations among self-regulation, self-control, executive functioning, effortful control, cognitive control, impulsivity, risk-taking, and inhibition for developmental psychopathology. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 58, 361–383 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Barrasso-Catanzaro, C. & Eslinger, P. J. Neurobiological bases of executive function and social-emotional development: typical and atypical brain changes. Fam. Relat. 65, 108–119 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Diamond, A. Activities and programs that improve children’s executive functions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21, 335–341 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Miyake, A. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn. Psychol. 41, 49–100 (2000).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Diamond, A. Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64, 135–168 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Baddeley, A. Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 63, 1–29 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Wiemers, E. A. & Redick, T. S. Working memory capacity and intra-individual variability of proactive control. Acta Psychol. 182, 21–31 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Raiker, J. S., Rapport, M. D., Kofler, M. J. & Sarver, D. E. Objectively-measured impulsivity and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): testing competing predictions from the working memory and behavioral inhibition models of ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 40, 699–713 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Patros, C. H. et al. Visuospatial working memory underlies choice-impulsivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Res. Dev. Disabil. 38, 134–144 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Singh, L. J., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Chan, E. S. & Kofler, M. J. Central executive training for ADHD: effects on academic achievement, productivity, and success in the classroom. Neuropsychology 36, 330–345 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Demaray, M. K. & Jenkins, L. N. Relations among academic enablers and academic achievement in children with and without high levels of parent-rated symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Psychol. Sch. 48, 573–586 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Barkley, R. A. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol. Bull. 121, 65–94 (1997).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Pennington, B. F. & Ozonoff, S. Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 37, 51–87 (1996).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Rapport, M. D., Chung, K.-M., Shore, G. & Isaacs, P. A conceptual model of child psychopathology: implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 30, 48–58 (2001).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Kofler, M. J., Raiker, J. S., Sarver, D. E., Wells, E. L. & Soto, E. F. Is hyperactivity ubiquitous in ADHD or dependent on environmental demands? Evidence from meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 46, 12–24 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory deficits and social problems in children with ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 39, 805–817 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Groves, N. B. et al. Executive functioning and emotion regulation in children with and without ADHD. Res. Child. Adolesc. Psychopathol. 50, 721–735 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Bolden, J., Sarver, D. E. & Raiker, J. S. ADHD and working memory: the impact of central executive deficits and exceeding storage/rehearsal capacity on observed inattentive behavior. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 38, 149–161 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Hill, E. L. Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Dev. Rev. 24, 189–233 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Leung, R. C., Vogan, V. M., Powell, T. L., Anagnostou, E. & Taylor, M. J. The role of executive functions in social impairment in autism spectrum disorder. Child. Neuropsychol. 22, 336–344 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Mostert-Kerckhoffs, M. A., Staal, W. G., Houben, R. H. & de Jonge, M. V. Stop and change: inhibition and flexibility skills are related to repetitive behavior in children and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 45, 3148–3158 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Ozonoff, S. in Learning and Cognition in Autism: Current Issues in Autism (eds Schopler, E. & Mesibov, G. B.) 199–219 (Springer, 1995).

  38. Karr, J. E. et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions: a systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies. Psychol. Bull. 144, 1147–1185 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Miyake, A. & Friedman, N. P. The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: four general conclusions. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 21, 8–14 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Wiebe, S. A. et al. The structure of executive function in 3-year-olds. J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 108, 436–452 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Zelazo, P. D., Craik, F. I. & Booth, L. Executive function across the life span. Acta Psychol. 115, 167–183 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Lerner, M. D. & Lonigan, C. J. Executive function among preschool children: unitary versus distinct abilities. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 36, 626–639 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. St Clair-Thompson, H. L. & Gathercole, S. E. Executive functions and achievements in school: shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 59, 745–759 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and organizational skills problems in ADHD. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 59, 57–67 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Jaroslawska, A. J., Gathercole, S. E., Logie, M. R. & Holmes, J. Following instructions in a virtual school: does working memory play a role? Mem. Cogn. 44, 580–589 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Engle, R. W. & Kane, M. J. in The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory Vol. 44 (ed. Ross, B. H.) 145–199 (Elsevier Science, 2004).

  47. Chacko, A., Kofler, M. & Jarrett, M. Improving outcomes for youth with ADHD: a conceptual framework for combined neurocognitive and skill-based treatment approaches. Clin. Child. Fam. Psychol. Rev. 17, 368–384 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Antshel, K. M. & Russo, N. Autism spectrum disorders and ADHD: overlapping phenomenology, diagnostic issues, and treatment considerations. Curr. Psychiat. Rep. 21, 34 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Townes, P. et al. Do ASD and ADHD have distinct executive function deficits? A systematic review and meta-analysis of direct comparison studies. J. Atten. Disord. 27, 1571–1582 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Sullivan, G. M. & Feinn, R. Using effect size — or why the P value is not enough. J. Grad. Med. Educ. 4, 279–282 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Kofler, M. J. et al. Executive functioning heterogeneity in pediatric ADHD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47, 273–286 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Pievsky, M. A. & McGrath, R. E. The neurocognitive profile of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review of meta-analyses. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. 33, 143–157 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Kasper, L. J., Alderson, R. M. & Hudec, K. L. Moderators of working memory deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 32, 605–617 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Fosco, W. D., Kofler, M. J., Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. & Raiker, J. S. Which ‘working’components of working memory aren’t working in youth with ADHD? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 48, 647–660 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Wager, T. D. & Smith, E. E. Neuroimaging studies of working memory. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 3, 255–274 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: a bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology 34, 686–698 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Pauli-Pott, U. & Becker, K. Neuropsychological basic deficits in preschoolers at risk for ADHD: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31, 626–637 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Schoemaker, K., Mulder, H., Deković, M. & Matthys, W. Executive functions in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems: a meta-analysis. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 41, 457–471 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Demetriou, E. A. et al. Autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of executive function. Mol. Psychiat. 23, 1198–1204 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Habib, A., Harris, L., Pollick, F. & Melville, C. A meta-analysis of working memory in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. PLoS ONE 14, e0216198 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Wang, Y. et al. A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychol. Rev. 27, 46–61 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Edmunds, S. R., Colman, C., Vidal, P. & Faja, S. Brief report: examining the links between language processes and working memory impairments in toddlers and preschoolers with ASD. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 52, 1872–1880 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Lai, C. L. E. et al. Meta-analysis of neuropsychological measures of executive functioning in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 10, 911–939 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Yerys, B. E. et al. Set-shifting in children with autism spectrum disorders: reversal shifting deficits on the Intradimensional/Extradimensional Shift Test correlate with repetitive behaviors. Autism 13, 523–538 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Yerys, B. E. et al. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res. 2, 322–333 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Karalunas, S. L. et al. Overlapping and distinct cognitive impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity and autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 46, 1705–1716 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Craig, F. et al. A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiat. Dis. Treat. 12, 1191–1202 (2016).

    Google Scholar 

  68. Neely, R. J., Green, J. L., Sciberras, E., Hazell, P. & Anderson, V. Relationship between executive functioning and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in 6–8 year old children. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 46, 3270–3280 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H. & Lehmkuhl, G. Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Ment. Health 2, 1–4 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Benallie, K. J., McClain, M. B., Bakner, K. E., Roanhorse, T. & Ha, J. Executive functioning in children with ASD + ADHD and ASD + ID: a systematic review. Res. Autism Spectr. Disord. 86, 101807 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Carroll, A. G. Comparing Executive Functioning Impairments Across Clinical Groups: Autism Spectrum Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Their Comorbid Occurrence in Children PhD thesis https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/comparing-executive-functioning-impairments/docview/2594697995/se-2?accountid=15728 (Indiana Univ. Pennsylvania, 2022).

  72. Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the stop-signal task. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 989–998 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D. & Kofler, M. J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 35, 745–758 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Wright, L., Lipszyc, J., Dupuis, A., Thayapararajah, S. W. & Schachar, R. Response inhibition and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of go/no-go task performance. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123, 429–439 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Lipszyc, J. & Schachar, R. Inhibitory control and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of studies using the stop signal task. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 16, 1064–1076 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Lansbergen, M. M., Kenemans, J. L. & van Engeland, H. Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 21, 251–262 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Mullane, J. C., Corkum, P. V., Klein, R. M. & McLaughlin, E. Interference control in children with and without ADHD: a systematic review of Flanker and Simon task performance. Child. Neuropsychol. 15, 321–342 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Geurts, H. M., van den Bergh, S. F. W. M. & Ruzzano, L. Prepotent response inhibition and interference control in autism spectrum disorders: two meta-analyses. Autism Res. 7, 407–420 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Tonizzi, I., Giofrè, D. & Usai, M. C. Inhibitory control in autism spectrum disorders: meta-analyses on indirect and direct measures. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 52, 4949–4965 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Irwin, L. N., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F. & Groves, N. B. Do children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have set shifting deficits? Neuropsychology 33, 470–481 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., Soto, E. F. & Kofler, M. J. Is there a functional relation between set shifting and hyperactivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 26, 1019–1027 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Irwin Harper, L. N., Groves, N. B., Marsh, C. L., Cole, A. M. & Kofler, M. J. Does training working memory or inhibitory control produce far-transfer improvements in set shifting for children with ADHD? A randomized controlled trial. Child. Neuropsychol. 29, 825–845 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Reed, P. Behavioural flexibility of children with autism spectrum disorder on a card-sorting task with varying task difficulty. Heliyon 4, e00842 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Miller, H. L., Ragozzino, M. E., Cook, E. H., Sweeney, J. A. & Mosconi, M. W. Cognitive set shifting deficits and their relationship to repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 45, 805–815 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Chen, S.-F. et al. Deficits in executive functions among youths with autism spectrum disorders: an age-stratified analysis. Psychol. Med. 46, 1625–1638 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Boshomane, T. T., Pillay, B. J. & Meyer, A. Mental flexibility (set-shifting) deficits in children with ADHD: a replication and extension study. J. Psychol. Afr. 31, 344–349 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Fair, D. A., Bathula, D., Nikolas, M. A. & Nigg, J. T. Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 6769–6774 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Dajani, D. R., Llabre, M. M., Nebel, M. B., Mostofsky, S. H. & Uddin, L. Q. Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders. Sci. Rep. 6, 36566 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Karalunas, S. L. et al. Heterogeneity in development of aspects of working memory predicts longitudinal attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptom change. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 126, 774–792 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Irwin, L. N. et al. Activities of daily living and working memory in pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child. Neuropsychol. 27, 468–490 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  91. Korkman, M., Kirk, U. & Kemp, S. NEPSY II: Clinical and Interpretive Manual (Harcourt Assessment, PsychCorp, 2007).

  92. Wechsler, D. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 5th edn (WISC-V) (Pearson, 2014).

  93. Andersson, A. et al. Research review: the strength of the genetic overlap between ADHD and other psychiatric symptoms — a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 61, 1173–1183 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Yerys, B. E. et al. Evaluation of the ADHD rating scale in youth with autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 90–100 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Zhou, X., Reynolds, C., Zhu, J. & Kamphaus, R. W. Differentiating autism from ADHD in children and adolescents using BASC-3. J. Pediatr. Neuropsychol. 6, 61–65 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Rosen, T. E., Mazefsky, C. A., Vasa, R. A. & Lerner, M. D. Co-occurring psychiatric conditions in autism spectrum disorder. Int. Rev. Psychiat. 30, 40–61 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Mazefsky, C. A. et al. ASD, a psychiatric disorder, or both? Psychiatric diagnoses in adolescents with high-functioning ASD. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 41, 516–523 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Miodovnik, A., Harstad, E., Sideridis, G. & Huntington, N. Timing of the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics 136, e830–e837 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Katusic, M. Z., Myers, S. M., Weaver, A. L. & Voigt, R. G. IQ in autism spectrum disorder: a population-based birth cohort study. Pediatrics 148, e2020049899 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Witwer, A. N. & Lecavalier, L. Validity of comorbid psychiatric disorders in youngsters with autism spectrum disorders. J. Dev. Phys. Disabil. 22, 367–380 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Musser, E. D. et al. Shared familial transmission of autism spectrum and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 55, 819–827 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Lerner, M. D. et al. Verbal ability and psychiatric symptoms in clinically referred inpatient and outpatient youth with ASD. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 48, 3689–3701 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  103. Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E. & Conway, A. R. Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 128, 309–331 (1999).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Giofrè, D., Mammarella, I. C. & Cornoldi, C. The structure of working memory and how it relates to intelligence in children. Intelligence 41, 396–406 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Tourva, A., Spanoudis, G. & Demetriou, A. Cognitive correlates of developing intelligence: the contribution of working memory, processing speed and attention. Intelligence 54, 136–146 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Lilienfeld, S. O. & Landfield, K. in Psychopathology: History, Diagnosis, and Empirical Foundations (eds Craighead, W. E., Miklowitz, D. J. & Craighead, L. W.) 1–33 (John Wiley & Sons, 2008).

  107. Brown, T. A. & Barlow, D. H. A proposal for a dimensional classification system based on the shared features of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders: implications for assessment and treatment. Psychol. Assess. 21, 256–271 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Cuthbert, B. N. & Insel, T. R. Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Med. 11, 126 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  109. Sokolova, E. et al. A causal and mediation analysis of the comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 1595–1604 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Krakowski, A. D. et al. Characterizing the ASD–ADHD phenotype: measurement structure and invariance in a clinical sample. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 63, 1534–1543 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Anning, K. L., Langley, K., Hobson, C. & Van Goozen, S. H. M. Dimensional associations between executive function processes and symptoms of ADHD, ASD, oppositional defiance and anxiety in young school-referred children. Cortex 167, 132–147 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Snyder, H. R., Miyake, A. & Hankin, B. L. Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches. Front. Psychol. 6, 328 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  113. Semrud-Clikeman, M. & Ellison, P. A. T. Child Neuropsychology (Springer, 2009).

  114. Sattler, J. Assessment of Children: Cognitive Foundations and Applications and Resource Guide to Accompany Assessment of Children: Cognitive Foundations and Applications (Sattler, 2018).

  115. Benson, N. F. et al. Test use and assessment practices of school psychologists in the United States: findings from the 2017 national survey. J. Sch. Psychol. 72, 29–48 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E. & Kramer, J. H. Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System Assessment D-KEFS Database 10.1037/t15082-000 (APA PsycTests, 2001).

  117. Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S. & Mather, N. Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities (Riverside Publishing, 2001).

  118. Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Sergeant, J. A., Nigg, J. & Willcutt, E. Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. Clin. N. Am. 17, 367–384 (2008).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Canivez, G. L., Dombrowski, S. C. & Watkins, M. W. Factor structure of the WISC-V in four standardization age groups: exploratory and hierarchical factor analyses with the 16 primary and secondary subtests. Psychol. Sch. 55, 741–769 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Floyd, R. G., Bergeron, R., Hamilton, G. & Parra, G. R. How do executive functions fit with the Cattell–Horn–Carroll model? Some evidence from a joint factor analysis of the Delis–Kaplan executive function system and the Woodcock–Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Psychol. Sch. 47, 721–738 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Singh, L. J., Floyd, R. G., Reynolds, M. R., Pike, N. A. & Huenergarde, M. C. What does the developmental Neuropsychological Assessment–II (NEPSY-II) measure in children ages 7 to 12? A structural and psychometric analysis. Child Neuropsychol. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2024.2357376 (2024).

  122. Abad, F. J., Sorrel, M. A., Román, F. J. & Colom, R. The relationships between WAIS-IV factor index scores and educational level: a bifactor model approach. Psychol. Assess. 28, 987 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Canivez, G. L. et al. Construct validity of the WISC-V in clinical cases: exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the 10 primary subtests. Assessment 27, 274–296 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Canivez, G. L., Watkins, M. W. & Dombrowski, S. C. Factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Fifth edition: exploratory factor analyses with the 16 primary and secondary subtests. Psychol. Assess. 28, 975–986 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Dombrowski, S. C., Canivez, G. L. & Watkins, M. W. Factor structure of the 10 WISC-V primary subtests across four standardization age groups. Contemp. Sch. Psychol. 22, 90–104 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Dombrowski, S. C., Canivez, G. L., Watkins, M. W. & Beaujean, A. A. Exploratory bifactor analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Fifth edition with the 16 primary and secondary subtests. Intelligence 53, 194–201 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Gignac, G. E. & Watkins, M. W. Bifactor modeling and the estimation of model-based reliability in the WAIS-IV. Multivar. Behav. Res. 48, 639–662 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Kranzler, J. H., Benson, N. & Floyd, R. G. Using estimated factor scores from a bifactor analysis to examine the unique effects of the latent variables measured by the WAIS-IV on academic achievement. Psychol. Assess. 27, 1402–1416 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Watkins, M. W. et al. Long-term stability of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — 5th edition scores in a clinical sample. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child. 11, 422–428 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Wells, E. L., Kofler, M. J., Soto, E. F., Schaefer, H. S. & Sarver, D. E. Assessing working memory in children with ADHD: minor administration and scoring changes may improve digit span backward’s construct validity. Res. Dev. Disabil. 72, 166–178 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Conway, A. R. et al. Working memory span tasks: a methodological review and user’s guide. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 12, 769–786 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Soto, E. F. et al. Executive functioning rating scales: ecologically valid or construct invalid? Neuropsychology 34, 605–619 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Rapport, M. D., Orban, S. A., Kofler, M. J. & Friedman, L. M. Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 33, 1237–1252 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Redick, T. S. & Lindsey, D. R. Complex span and n-back measures of working memory: a meta-analysis. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 20, 1102–1113 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Isquith, P. K., Roth, R. M. & Gioia, G. Contribution of rating scales to the assessment of executive functions. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child. 2, 125–132 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Toplak, M. E., West, R. F. & Stanovich, K. E. Practitioner review: do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? J. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 54, 131–143 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Miranda, A., Colomer, C., Mercader, J., Fernández, M. I. & Presentación, M. J. Performance-based tests versus behavioral ratings in the assessment of executive functioning in preschoolers: associations with ADHD symptoms and reading achievement. Front. Psychol. 6, 545 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  138. Nordvall, O., Jonsson, B. & Neely, A. S. Self-reported and performance-based measures of executive functions in interned youth. Psychol. Crime. Law 23, 240–253 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Spiegel, J. A., Lonigan, C. J. & Phillips, B. M. Factor structure and utility of the behavior rating inventory of executive function — preschool version. Psychol. Assess. 29, 172–185 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Friedman, N. P. & Miyake, A. Unity and diversity of executive functions: individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex 86, 186–204 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Biederman, J. et al. Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 72, 757–766 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Coghill, D. R., Seth, S. & Matthews, K. A comprehensive assessment of memory, delay aversion, timing, inhibition, decision making and variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: advancing beyond the three-pathway models. Psychol. Med. 44, 1989–2001 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Nigg, J. T., Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E. & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biol. Psychiat. 57, 1224–1230 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V. & Pennington, B. F. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol. Psychiat. 57, 1336–1346 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Solanto, M. V. et al. The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: a supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 29, 215–228 (2001).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Sonuga-Barke, E., Bitsakou, P. & Thompson, M. Beyond the dual pathway model: evidence for the dissociation of timing, inhibitory, and delay-related impairments in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 49, 345–355 (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  147. Willoughby, M. T. & Blair, C. B. Measuring executive function in early childhood: a case for formative measurement. Psychol. Assess. 28, 319 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Redick, T. S. et al. Measuring working memory capacity with automated complex span tasks. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 28, 164–171 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Nee, D. E. et al. A meta-analysis of executive components of working memory. Cereb. Cortex 23, 264–282 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Kofler, M. J. et al. Rethinking hyperactivity in pediatric ADHD: preliminary evidence for a reconceptualization of hyperactivity/impulsivity from the perspective of informant perceptual processes. Psychol. Assess. 32, 752–767 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  151. Hwang-Gu, S.-L. et al. Symptoms of ADHD affect intrasubject variability in youths with autism spectrum disorder: an ex-Gaussian analysis. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 48, 455–468 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Fosco, W. D. et al. Inhibitory control and information processing in ADHD: comparing the dual task and performance adjustment hypotheses. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 47, 961–974 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  153. Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and intraindividual variability as neurocognitive indicators in ADHD: examining competing model predictions. Neuropsychology 28, 459–471 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Rapport, M. D. et al. Working memory deficits in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the contribution of central executive and subsystem processes. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 36, 825–837 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Kofler, M. J. et al. A randomized controlled trial of central executive training (CET) versus inhibitory control training (ICT) for ADHD. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 88, 738–756 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  156. Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., Cole, A. M., Singh, L. J. & Kofler, M. J. Central executive training for ADHD: impact on organizational skills at home and school. A randomized controlled trial. Neuropsychology 37, 859–871 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E. & Wells, E. L. Working memory and increased activity level (hyperactivity) in ADHD: experimental evidence for a functional relation. J. Atten. Disord. 24, 1330–1344 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Rapport, M. D. et al. Hyperactivity in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a ubiquitous core symptom or manifestation of working memory deficits? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 37, 521–534 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Schachar, R. J. et al. Autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: shared or unique neurocognitive profiles? Res. Child. Adolesc. Psychopathol. 51, 17–31 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Alderson, R. M., Rapport, M. D., Hudec, K. L., Sarver, D. E. & Kofler, M. J. Competing core processes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): do working memory deficiencies underlie behavioral inhibition deficits? J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 38, 497–507 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Alderson, R. M. et al. Working memory and behavioral inhibition in boys with ADHD: an experimental examination of competing models. Child. Neuropsychol. 23, 255–272 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and information processing in ADHD: evidence for directionality of effects. Neuropsychology 34, 127–143 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Goschke, T. Dysfunctions of decision-making and cognitive control as transdiagnostic mechanisms of mental disorders: advances, gaps, and needs in current research. Int. J. Methods Psychiat. Res. 23, 41–57 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  164. Bennett, C. L., Petros, T. V., Johnson, M. & Ferraro, F. R. Individual differences in the influence of time of day on executive functions. Am. J. Psychol. 121, 349–361 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Lara, T., Madrid, J. A. & Correa, Á. The vigilance decrement in executive function is attenuated when individual chronotypes perform at their optimal time of day. PLoS ONE 9, e88820 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  166. Constantino, J. N. & Todd, R. D. Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 60, 524–530 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Robinson, E. B. et al. Evidence that autistic traits show the same etiology in the general population and at the quantitative extremes (5%, 2.5%, and 1%). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68, 1113–1121 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  168. McLennan, J. D. Understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as a continuum. Can. Fam. Physician 62, 979–982 (2016).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  169. Yang, Y. et al. Child executive function and future externalizing and internalizing problems: a meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 97, 102194 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Dennis, M. et al. Why IQ is not a covariate in cognitive studies of neurodevelopmental disorders. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 15, 331–343 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  171. Howard, S. J. et al. Challenging socioeconomic status: a cross-cultural comparison of early executive function. Dev. Sci. 23, e12854 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Alloway, T. P., Alloway, R. G. & Wootan, S. Home sweet home: does where you live matter to working memory and other cognitive skills? J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 124, 124–131 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Bitsko, R. H. et al. Mental health surveillance among children — United States, 2013–2019. MMWR Suppl. 71, 1–42 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  174. Maenner, M. J. et al. Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years — autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2020. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 72, 1–14 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  175. Lai, M.-C., Lombardo, M. V., Auyeung, B., Chakrabarti, B. & Baron-Cohen, S. Sex/gender differences and autism: setting the scene for future research. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 54, 11–24 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Millenet, S. et al. Sex-specific trajectories of ADHD symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood. Eur. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 27, 1067–1075 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Cockcroft, K. Are working memory models WEIRD? Testing models of working memory in a non-WEIRD sample. Neuropsychology 36, 456–467 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Cheon, B. K., Melani, I. & Hong, Y. How USA-centric is psychology? An archival study of implicit assumptions of generalizability of findings to human nature based on origins of study samples. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 11, 928–937 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  179. Webber-Ritchey, K. J. et al. Recruitment strategies to optimize participation by diverse populations. Nurs. Sci. Q. 34, 235–243 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Rowley, S. J. & Camacho, T. C. Increasing diversity in cognitive developmental research: issues and solutions. J. Cogn. Dev. 16, 683–692 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. Buchanan, N. T., Perez, M., Prinstein, M. J. & Thurston, I. B. Upending racism in psychological science: strategies to change how science is conducted, reported, reviewed, and disseminated. Am. Psychol. 76, 1097–1112 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Werner, K. M., Inzlicht, M. & Ford, B. Q. Whither inhibition? Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 31, 333–339 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  183. Kofler, M. J. et al. Working memory and inhibitory control deficits in children with ADHD: an experimental evaluation of competing model predictions. Front. Psychiat. 15, 1277583 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. Howlett, C. A., Miles, S., Berryman, C., Phillipou, A. & Moseley, G. L. Conflation between self-report and neurocognitive assessments of cognitive flexibility: a critical review of the Jingle Fallacy. Aust. J. Psychol. 75, 2174684 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Abikoff, H. et al. Remediating organizational functioning in children with ADHD: immediate and long-term effects from a randomized controlled trial. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 81, 113–128 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Verbruggen, F., Chambers, C. D. & Logan, G. D. Fictitious inhibitory differences: how skewness and slowing distort the estimation of stopping latencies. Psychol. Sci. 24, 352–362 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Duncan, A., Tamm, L., Birnschein, A. M. & Becker, S. P. Clinical correlates of sluggish cognitive tempo in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism 23, 1354–1362 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. McFayden, T. et al. Sluggish cognitive tempo in autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, and their comorbidity: implications for impairment. J. Clin. Child. Adolesc. Psychol. 51, 195–202 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Becker, S. P. et al. The internal, external, and diagnostic validity of sluggish cognitive tempo: a meta-analysis and critical review. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 55, 163–178 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  190. Becker, S. P. & Barkley, R. A. Sluggish cognitive tempo. In Oxford Textbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (eds Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D. & Zuddas, A.) Ch. 15, 147–153 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2018).

  191. McBurnett, K. et al. Structure and validity of sluggish cognitive tempo using an expanded item pool in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Abnorm. Child. Psychol. 42, 37–48 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Kofler, M. J. et al. What cognitive processes are “sluggish” in sluggish cognitive tempo? J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 87, 1030 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  193. Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L. & Waschbusch, D. A. Relationship between sluggish cognitive tempo and sleep, psychological, somatic, and cognitive problems and impairment in children with autism and children with ADHD. Clin. Child. Psychol. Psychiat. 26, 518–530 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  194. Reinvall, O. et al. Sluggish cognitive tempo in children and adolescents with higher functioning autism spectrum disorders: social impairments and internalizing symptoms. Scand. J. Psychol. 58, 389–399 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Mueller, A. K. et al. Sluggish cognitive tempo and its neurocognitive, social and emotive correlates: a systematic review of the current literature. J. Mol. Psychiat. 2, 5 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  196. Tamm, L. et al. Neurocognition in children with cognitive disengagement syndrome: accurate but slow. Child. Neuropsychol. 30, 221–240 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Stark, R. & Mandl, H. Bridging the gap between basic and applied research by an integrative research approach. Educ. Res. Eval. 13, 249–261 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Munro, C. L. & Savel, R. H. Narrowing the 17-year research to practice gap. Am. J. Crit. Care 25, 194–196 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Mallonee, S., Fowler, C. & Istre, G. R. Bridging the gap between research and practice: a continuing challenge. Inj. Prev. 12, 357–359 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  200. American Educational Research Association (AERA), American Psychological Association (APA) & National Council on Measurement in Education. Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, 2014).

  201. Kane, M. J. & Engle, R. W. Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: the contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 132, 47–70 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Hicks, K. L., Foster, J. L. & Engle, R. W. Measuring working memory capacity on the web with the online working memory lab (the OWL). J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn. 5, 478–489 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  203. Normand, S. & Tannock, R. Screening for working memory deficits in the classroom: the psychometric properties of the working memory rating scale in a longitudinal school-based study. J. Atten. Disord. 18, 294–304 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

    Michael J. Kofler, Leah J. Singh & Sherelle L. Harmon

  2. Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA

    Elia F. Soto

  3. Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA

    Emma M. Jaisle, Jessica N. Smith & Kathleen E. Feeney

  4. Department of Psychology, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

    Erica D. Musser

Authors
  1. Michael J. Kofler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elia F. Soto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Leah J. Singh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sherelle L. Harmon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Emma M. Jaisle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jessica N. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Kathleen E. Feeney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Erica D. Musser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors researched data for the article and contributed substantially to the discussion of the content. M.J.K., E.F.S., L.J.S., S.L.H, E.M.J., J.N.S., K.E.F. and E.D.M. wrote the article and reviewed and/or edited the manuscript before submission.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael J. Kofler.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Reviews Psychology thanks Alisha Pollastri, Russel Schachar and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kofler, M.J., Soto, E.F., Singh, L.J. et al. Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Nat Rev Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-024-00350-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-024-00350-9

  • Springer Nature America, Inc.

Search

Navigation