1 Introduction

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous materials that exhibit remarkable properties owing to their highly ordered structures and tunable pore sizes [1]. These materials are composed of metal ions or clusters connected by organic ligands, forming a three-dimensional network structure. MOFs can have exceptionally high surface areas, with values ranging from 1000 to 10,000 square meters per gram, and large internal pore volumes, often exceeding 1 cm3 per gram [2]. The specific surface area of MOFs can be as high as 7,000 m2/g, which is several orders of magnitude greater than that of conventional materials such as zeolites and activated carbon. Additionally, the pore sizes of MOFs can range from less than 1 nm to several nanometers, making them suitable for a wide range of applications [3].

MOFs have garnered significant attention in recent years owing to their potential applications in catalysis, gas storage, and gas separation. For example, MOFs can be used as catalysts for a variety of reactions, including oxidation, reduction, and carbon–carbon bond formation [4]. They can also be used for gas storage, with hydrogen storage capacities exceeding 7 wt%, which is much higher than those of other conventional materials. MOFs have also shown promise for use in gas separation, with a selectivity for carbon dioxide over nitrogen exceeding 200, making them useful for applications such as carbon capture [5].

In addition to their high surface areas and porosities, MOFs exhibit other unique properties that make them attractive for various applications. For example, the metal ions within MOFs can be designed to exhibit different oxidation states and coordination geometries, which can influence their catalytic properties. Furthermore, organic ligands can be tailored to exhibit specific functional groups, allowing for the introduction of additional chemical functionalities to the material. The synthesis of MOFs has become more efficient and streamlined in recent years. Advances in synthetic methods have allowed for large-scale production of MOFs with high reproducibility, making them more accessible for industrial applications. The use of new solvents and reaction conditions has also led to the synthesis of MOFs with unique properties and structures, which were previously inaccessible [6].

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have shown significant potential in catalysis, gas storage, and separation owing to their high surface area, tunable pore sizes, and unique chemical properties. MOFs have been shown to exhibit high catalytic activity because of their ability to provide a large number of active sites within their porous structure. The unique properties of MOFs have enabled the development of new catalytic processes that are more efficient and selective than conventional methods. For example, MOFs have been used as catalysts in reactions such as the Knoevenagel condensation, aldol condensation, and Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reactions. In gas storage, MOFs have been shown to have higher storage capacities for gases such as hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide than traditional materials such as activated carbon and zeolites. For example, MOFs have been shown to have hydrogen storage capacities exceeding 7 wt% at room temperature and moderate pressure, which are much higher than those of conventional materials. In gas separation, MOFs have been shown to exhibit high selectivity for certain gases owing to their tunable pore sizes and chemical properties [7]. For example, MOFs have been used for carbon dioxide capture from flue gas and natural gas purification. The importance of MOFs in these applications can be further demonstrated by an increasing number of publications in this field.

This study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art research on MOFs in these fields. This review summarizes the most recent findings and developments in the synthesis, characterization, and application of MOFs, with a focus on their potential applications in catalysis, gas storage, and separation. The review article also discusses the challenges associated with the development and application of MOFs as well as future directions and opportunities in this field. This review article aims to provide a thorough understanding of the current state-of-the-art research on MOFs and their potential for various applications, which will be of interest to researchers, engineers, and scientists working in the fields of chemistry, materials science, and chemical engineering. Figure 1 shows the formulation of MOF.

Fig. 1
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Formulation of Metal Organic Framework (MOF) [143]

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2 Synthesis of MOFs

2.1 General Synthetic Approaches

The synthesis of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) has been an active area of research, and several synthetic methods have been developed to produce MOFs with a wide range of structures and properties [8]. The synthesis of MOFs typically involves the reaction of metal ions with organic ligands in a suitable solvent under specific conditions such as temperature, pressure, and time. One of the most commonly used methods for MOF synthesis is solvothermal synthesis, which involves heating a mixture of metal ions and organic ligands in a solvent at high temperature and pressure. For example, the synthesis of MOF-5, one of the first and most well-studied MOFs, involves the reaction of zinc ions with 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid in N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) under solvothermal conditions at 120 °C for 24 h [9].

Another commonly used method for MOF synthesis is microwave-assisted synthesis, which involves the use of microwave radiation to accelerate the reaction between metal ions and organic ligands. For example, MOF-74, a highly porous MOF with potential applications in gas storage and separation, can be synthesized using a microwave-assisted method involving the reaction of magnesium ions with tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin in a solvent mixture of DMF and ethanol under microwave radiation at 120 °C for 30 min [10]. The development of new methods has enabled the synthesis of MOFs with complex structures and properties. For example, the use of high-throughput methods and automation has enabled rapid synthesis and screening of large libraries of MOFs, which has led to the discovery of new materials with unique properties. In addition to solvothermal and microwave-assisted methods, there are other methods for synthesizing MOFs, including hydrothermal, sono chemical, and mechanochemical syntheses [11]. Hydrothermal synthesis involves heating the reaction mixture under high pressure and temperature in a sealed vessel, whereas sono chemical synthesis uses ultrasound waves to promote the reaction between metal ions and organic ligands. Mechanochemical synthesis involves the use of mechanical forces such as grinding or milling to promote the reaction between metal ions and organic ligands [12]. The choice of the synthesis method can affect the properties of the resulting MOF, such as its structure, morphology, and surface area. Therefore, it is important to carefully choose a synthesis method based on the desired properties of MOF. MOF synthesis has become more efficient and streamlined in recent years, and new synthetic methods have enabled the production of MOFs with a wide range of structures and properties. The continued development of synthetic methods will likely lead to the discovery of new and innovative MOFs with the potential for various applications.

The synthesis of MOFs has seen significant growth in recent years, with the number of reported MOFs exponentially increasing. As of 2021, over 90,000 MOFs have been reported in the literature, with new MOFs reported on a daily basis. This growth has been facilitated by the availability of new metal ions and organic ligands as well as the development of new synthetic methods [13]. Figure 2 shows the various MOF synthesis techniques.

Fig. 2
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Synthesis of MOFs [144]

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2.2 Factors Affecting the Synthesis of MOFs

The synthesis of Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) is a complex process that is influenced by several factors, including the choice of metal ions and organic ligands; reaction conditions such as temperature, pressure, and time; and the type of solvent used [14]. The choice of metal ions and organic ligands is a critical factor in determining the structure and properties of the resulting MOF. The properties of the metal ions, such as their coordination geometry and charge, can affect the structure of the MOF, whereas the properties of the organic ligands, such as their size, shape, and functionality, can affect the porosity, surface area, and chemical stability of the MOF [15]. Figure 3 shows the various factors affecting the synthesis of MOFs.

Fig. 3
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Factors affecting the Synthesis of MOFs [144]

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Reaction conditions such as temperature, pressure, and time also play a crucial role in the synthesis of MOFs. The choice of reaction conditions can affect the formation of MOF structures and their properties. For example, increasing the reaction temperature or pressure can promote the formation of larger crystals, whereas longer reaction times can result in higher yields. The type of solvent used in the synthesis of MOFs is another important factor that influences the properties of the resulting MOF. Solvents with different properties, such as polarity, viscosity, and surface tension, can affect the crystal growth and morphology of MOF, as well as their porosity and surface area [16]. In addition to these factors, other parameters such as the pH, concentration of the reactants, and presence of additives can also influence the synthesis of MOFs. The ability to control these factors through careful experimental design enables the synthesis of MOFs with tailored properties for specific applications. Therefore, a better understanding of these factors and their influence on MOF synthesis is critical for the development of new materials with enhanced properties [17]. Table 1 shows the factor influencing the MOF synthesis process.

Table 1 Factors influencing the MOF synthesis
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2.3 Recent Advances in MOF Synthesis

Recent advances in MOF synthesis have focused on improving the scalability, reproducibility, and sustainability of MOF production as well as expanding the range of possible metal ions and organic ligands used in synthesis [18]. Microwave irradiation has been used to accelerate MOF synthesis, resulting in shorter reaction times, higher yields, and smaller particle sizes [19]. For example, one study reported the synthesis of a MOF in just 15 min using microwave irradiation, compared with several hours using conventional heating [20]. Mechanochemistry, which involves the use of mechanical force to promote chemical reactions, has emerged as a promising alternative to the traditional solution-based synthesis methods for MOFs. Mechanochemical synthesis can result in higher yields, shorter reaction times, and more homogeneous products [21]. For example, one study reported the synthesis of a MOF using a ball-milling method, which resulted in a high yield (95%) and good reproducibility [22].

Continuous-flow synthesis methods have been developed for MOFs, offering several advantages over traditional batch synthesis methods, including higher yields, improved scalability, and reduced waste [23]. For example, one study reported the continuous-flow synthesis of a MOF using a microfluidic reactor, which resulted in a high yield (98%) and good reproducibility [24]. Post-synthetic modification (PSM) involves the modification of preformed MOFs to introduce new functionalities or improve their properties. PSM has been used to improve the stability, porosity, and catalytic activity of MOFs [25]. For example, one study reported the PSM of a MOF to introduce catalytic sites, resulting in enhanced catalytic activity for alcohol oxidation [26].

Solvent-free synthesis methods have been developed for MOFs, which eliminate the need for solvents and can improve the sustainability of MOF production. For example, one study reported the solvent-free synthesis of a MOF using a ball-milling method, which resulted in a high yield (85%) and good reproducibility [27]. Template-assisted synthesis involves using a pre-existing material as a template to guide the formation of a MOF. This approach can lead to improved selectivity and synthesis of MOFs with more complex structures [28]. For example, one study reported the template-assisted synthesis of a MOF using a porous silicon substrate, which resulted in a highly ordered MOF with improved catalytic activity (Yao et al., 2020).

Metal ion substitution involves replacing a metal ion in a pre-existing MOF with a different metal ion, which can lead to the synthesis of MOFs with new or improved properties. For example, one study reported the substitution of cobalt for zinc in a pre-existing MOF, resulting in a MOF with improved catalytic activity for carbon dioxide conversion [29]. Cooperative assembly involves the use of multiple ligands to assemble a MOF, which can lead to the synthesis of MOFs with more complex structures and improved properties [30].

Solvent-free synthesis is an environment-friendly approach that eliminates the need for solvents and reduces waste. In 2020, researchers reported a solvent-free method for preparing MOFs using mechanochemistry. They were able to synthesize MOFs with high yields and purity, and the method showed potential for scale-up to industrial production [31]. Microwave-assisted synthesis is a fast and efficient method that uses microwave radiation to heat the reaction mixture and accelerate MOF formation. Researchers reported a microwave-assisted synthesis method for preparing a range of MOFs including MIL-101 and UiO-66. The method showed improved reaction kinetics and reduced reaction times compared with conventional heating methods [32].

Bottom-up synthesis involves building MOFs from simple building blocks such as metal ions and organic ligands to create more complex structures [33]. Researchers reported a bottom-up synthesis method for preparing a new class of MOFs called molecular tessellations. They were able to synthesize MOFs with high purity and yield, and their structures showed promising properties for gas storage and separation applications [34]. Biopolymers, such as chitosan and alginate, have been used as templates for the synthesis of MOFs because of their unique properties, such as biodegradability and high surface area. In 2020, researchers reported a biopolymer-assisted synthesis method for preparing MOFs with a high surface area and thermal stability. This method used chitosan as a template to guide the formation of a ZIF-8 MOF, and the resulting material showed promising gas adsorption properties [35].

Photochemical synthesis uses light to initiate chemical reactions and has been used for the synthesis of various materials, including MOFs. In 2021, researchers reported a photochemical synthesis method for preparing a new class of MOFs, called covalent organic frameworks (COFs). They were able to synthesize several COFs with high purity and yield, using light as the driving force for the reaction [36]. Ultrasonication-assisted synthesis uses ultrasonic waves to enhance MOF formation and improve reaction kinetics. In 2021, researchers reported an ultrasonication-assisted synthesis method for preparing a range of MOFs, including UiO-66 and ZIF-8. The method showed improved yields and reaction times compared with traditional synthesis methods, and the resulting MOFs showed promising properties for gas storage and separation [37]. Figure 4 shows recent advancements in MOF synthesis techniques.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Recent advances in MOF synthesis

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3 Properties of MOFs

The properties of MOFs can be tuned by varying the metal ions, ligands, and synthesis conditions, resulting in a wide range of potential applications in areas such as gas storage and separation, catalysis, and sensing. MOFs have an extremely high surface area owing to their porous structure, which enables them to adsorb large amounts of gases or other molecules. For example, MOF HKUST-1 has a surface area of 1440 m2/g, which is approximately equivalent to the surface area of the two football fields [38]. The size and shape of the pores in MOFs can be precisely controlled by varying the size and shape of the organic ligands used in their synthesis. This allows for the selective adsorption of molecules based on their size and shape, making MOFs promising candidates for gas separation and purification. For example, MOF ZIF-8 has a pore size of approximately 3.4 Å, which is well suited for the separation of small gas molecules such as CO2 and CH4 [39].

The properties of MOFs can be tuned by varying their metal ions, ligands, and synthesis conditions. This allows the development of MOFs with specific chemical and physical properties tailored to a particular application. For example, MOF MIL-101 has tunable pore sizes and surface chemistry, making it a promising candidate for gas storage and catalysis applications [40]. MOFs are generally stable under a wide range of conditions, including high temperatures and exposure to various chemicals. For example, UiO-66 has been shown to maintain its crystallinity and porosity even after exposure to high temperatures of up to 500 °C [41].

Some MOFs exhibit unique optical and electronic properties such as luminescence and conductivity. These properties make them promising candidates for applications in sensing and optoelectronics. For example, the MOF Zn2(BDC)2(DABCO) has been shown to exhibit strong luminescence and has been explored for use in sensing applications [42]. The properties of MOFs make them versatile and promising materials for a wide range of industrial applications. Their ability to selectively adsorb or catalyze specific molecules, combined with their high surface area and tunable properties, makes them attractive candidates for solving some of the most pressing challenges in areas such as energy, environmental sustainability, and healthcare. Figure 5 shows the properties of MOFs.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Properties of MOFs [145]

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3.1 Structural Properties

The structural properties of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are determined by the composition of their metal ions or clusters and organic ligands, as well as the synthetic conditions used to produce them. MOFs have a crystalline structure that is determined by the arrangement of metal ions or clusters and organic ligands in the material. The crystal structure of MOFs can be determined using X-ray crystallography, which allows the determination of the positions of individual atoms within the structure [43]. The crystal structure of a MOF can provide important information about its properties, such as pore size and shape, and can be used to predict its behavior in various applications. MOFs have a porous structure, with pores that are typically nanometer-sized. The size and shape of the pores could be precisely controlled by varying the size and shape of the organic ligands used in the synthesis. For example, MOF ZIF-8 has a pore size of approximately 3.4 Å, whereas MOF MIL-101 has tunable pore sizes ranging from 15 to 34 Å [44]. The pore size and shape of MOFs determine their ability to selectively adsorb or separate specific molecules. MOFs have an extremely high surface area owing to their porous structures. The surface area of a MOF can be determined using techniques such as nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms. For example, MOF HKUST-1 has a surface area of 1440 m2/g, which is approximately equivalent to the surface area of the two football fields. The high surface area of MOFs allows them to adsorb large amounts of gas or other molecules [38].

MOFs are generally stable under a wide range of conditions, including at high temperatures. The thermal stability of a MOF can be determined using techniques such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). For example, UiO-66 has been shown to maintain its crystallinity and porosity even after exposure to high temperatures of up to 500 °C [41]. MOFs can exhibit different stabilities in different environments, such as in the presence of water or different chemicals. The stability of a MOF can be determined by exposing it to different environments and monitoring the changes in its structure using techniques such as X-ray diffraction or infrared spectroscopy. For example, ZIF-8 is stable in water, whereas MOF-5 is unstable in water and decomposes rapidly [45].

MOFs can exhibit structural flexibility, which means that they can undergo structural changes in response to external stimuli such as temperature or pressure. This property can be useful for applications such as gas separation and sensing. For example, MOF MIL-53 can undergo a reversible structural transition between the open and closed forms, depending on temperature and pressure [46]. The organic ligands in MOFs can impart specific chemical functionalities to the material, which can be useful for specific applications, such as catalysis or sensing. For example, UiO-66-NH2 has amino functional groups on its organic ligands, which allow for specific interactions with certain molecules. MOFs can also exhibit unique mechanical properties such as high mechanical strength and flexibility [47]. These properties can be important in applications such as gas storage or separation, where MOF must withstand mechanical stresses. For example, MOF NU-1000 has been shown to have exceptional mechanical strength with Young’s modulus of up to 58 GPa, which is comparable to that of some metals [48]. Table 2 shows the structural properties of MOF

Table 2 Structural properties of MOF
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3.2 Porosity and Surface Area

The porosity and surface area are important properties of MOFs that determine their ability to store and separate gases and other small molecules. Porosity refers to the presence of empty spaces or pores in a material. The size and distribution of these pores can affect the ability of MOFs to store and separate various types of molecules. Pore size is typically measured in terms of the diameter of the smallest aperture or channel within the MOF [49]. The larger the pore size, the greater the amount of gas or small molecules that can be stored within the MOF. The surface area is another important property of MOFs that can affect their gas storage and separation capabilities. MOFs typically have high surface areas, which result from their porous structure. The surface area is typically measured using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method, which calculates the surface area based on the amount of gas adsorbed on the MOF surface [50].

Here are some examples of the porosity and surface area values for different MOFs.

  • ZIF-8: pore size of 3.4 Å, surface area of 1600 m2/g [51

  • MIL-101: tunable pore sizes from 15 to 34 Å, a surface area of 4300 m2/g [52]

  • HKUST-1: pore size of 7.4 Å, surface area of 1440 m2/g [53]

  • UiO-66: pore size of 11.6 Å, surface area of 1518 m2/g [54]

  • MOF-5: pore size of 11.6 Å, surface area of 3245 m2/g [55]

]

The porosity and surface area of MOFs can vary widely depending on the specific material and the synthesis method used. These properties play a critical role in determining the potential applications of MOFs, particularly for gas storage and separation. In addition to the pore size and surface area, other structural properties of MOFs can also influence their properties and applications. MOFs are typically highly crystalline materials, that is, their atoms are arranged in a regular repeating pattern. This can affect the mechanical and thermal properties, as well as the stability, and durability of the material. MOFs can have a variety of frameworks or overall structures, which are determined by the connectivity between the metal nodes and organic linkers [56]. Different frameworks can exhibit different pore sizes, shapes, and connectivity, which can affect their properties [57]. Some MOFs are flexible, meaning that their structures can undergo reversible changes in response to changes in temperature, pressure, or guest molecules. This can affect the gas storage and separation properties, as well as their catalytic activity. The chemical composition and functional groups present on the MOF surface can affect its properties and applications. For example, functionalization with specific groups can enhance the selectivity and affinity of MOF for certain guest molecules.

Here are some examples of the values of these properties for different MOFs.

  • UiO-66: highly crystalline, flexible structure that can undergo reversible phase transitions, with tunable pore size and functionalized surface chemistry [58]

  • MOF-5: high crystallinity, rigid framework with large pore size and high surface area, but limited flexibility and functionalization options [59]

  • ZIF-8: highly crystalline, rigid framework with small pore size and high stability, but limited functionalization options [60].

MIL-101: highly crystalline, flexible structure with tunable pore sizes and functionalize surface chemistry, but lower stability and durability than some other MOFs [61]. Table 3 shows the pore size and surface area details of MOF.

Table 3 Pore size and surface area properties of MOF
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3.3 Chemical and Thermal Stability

MOFs are known for their high surface areas, large pore volumes, and tunable properties. However, their chemical and thermal stabilities can vary widely, depending on their structures and compositions. Here is a brief explanation of the chemical and thermal stabilities of MOFs with data, values, and numbers. MOFs are susceptible to chemical degradation by exposure to moisture, acidic or basic conditions, and other reactive chemicals. The chemical stability of MOFs can be evaluated by measuring their structural integrity after their exposure to various chemical agents. For example, the MOF-5 framework retains its crystallinity even after exposure to boiling water for several hours [62]. On the other hand, MOFs based on aluminium or zinc are more sensitive to acidic or basic conditions, leading to the hydrolysis of metal–oxygen bonds [63].

MOFs can also be susceptible to degradation at high temperatures, which can lead to the collapse of the framework structure or the decomposition of the organic ligands. The thermal stability of MOFs can be evaluated by measuring their weight loss and structural integrity after exposure to high temperatures. For example, the MOF-5 framework retains its crystallinity up to 523 K (250 °C) before decomposition [64]. However, MOFs with weaker metal–oxygen bonds are more susceptible to thermal degradation [65].

The chemical and thermal stabilities of MOFs can vary widely depending on their composition, structure, and intended applications [66]. Researchers continue to investigate strategies to improve the stability of MOFs under various conditions to expand their potential applications. In addition to the factors mentioned in the previous section, the chemical and thermal stabilities of MOFs also depend on their pore size, metal coordination geometry, and type of organic ligands used. For example, MOFs with larger pore sizes may be more susceptible to structural collapse owing to thermal expansion and contraction during heating and cooling cycles [67]. Similarly, MOFs with metal coordination geometries that are more prone to hydrolysis, such as tetrahedral coordination, may exhibit lower chemical stabilities [68]. In contrast, MOFs with robust organic ligands, such as carboxylate or phosphonate ligands, can exhibit higher chemical stability because of the stronger bonds formed between the ligands and metal centers [69].

3.4 Tuning of Properties

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous materials composed of metal ions or clusters connected by organic ligands [70]. MOFs have attracted significant attention owing to their tunable properties, which can be adjusted by varying metal ions, ligands, and synthesis conditions. The choice of metal ions used in MOF synthesis can have a significant impact on the properties of the resulting material. For example, the use of Zr ions can lead to MOFs with high stability and high surface area, whereas the use of Cu ions can result in MOFs with high catalytic activity [71]. Different properties can be achieved by varying the metal-ion concentration. The choice of ligands used in MOF synthesis can also have a significant impact on the properties of the material. For example, the use of pyridine-based ligands can lead to MOFs with high stability and good gas adsorption properties, whereas the use of carboxylate-based ligands can result in MOFs with high selectivity for certain gas molecules. Different properties can be achieved by varying the ligand. The synthesis conditions used to prepare the MOFs can also affect their properties. For example, changing the reaction time or temperature can alter the crystal structure or surface area of MOF [72]. The desired properties can be achieved by optimizing synthesis conditions.

Various characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), N2 adsorption, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can be used to obtain data on the properties of MOFs [73]. For example, XRD can provide information on the crystal structure, whereas N2 adsorption can provide information on the surface area and pore size distribution. By analyzing these data, the properties of MOFs can be understood and optimized. Numerical values can be used to quantify the properties of MOFs. For example, the surface area can be measured in m2/g, whereas pore size can be measured in angstroms. By comparing and optimizing these values, the desired properties of the MOFs can be achieved.

Another approach to tuning the properties of MOFs is to introduce functional groups onto the surface of the material. This can be achieved through post-synthesis modification, where the MOF is treated with a solution containing functional molecules, or through covalent functionalization during the synthesis process [74]. By introducing functional groups, MOFs can exhibit additional properties, such as catalytic activity, sensing ability, and selective adsorption. MOFs are widely studied for their gas adsorption properties, which can be tuned by varying their structure and composition. Gas adsorption is often characterized by isotherms, which plot the amount of gas adsorbed versus pressure. By analyzing the isotherm, properties such as the surface area, pore volume, and selectivity can be determined and optimized. Figure 6 shows the mechanism of tuning the properties of MOFs.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Tuning the properties of MOFs [146]

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MOFs can exhibit varying degrees of thermal stability, which is important for their potential applications in catalysis, gas storage, and separation [75]. Thermal stability can be quantified by measuring the decomposition temperature or the activation energy required for decomposition. By optimizing the composition and structure of MOFs, their thermal stability can be improved. The mechanical properties of MOFs, such as their strength and elasticity, are important for their potential use in various applications such as sensing and drug delivery. The mechanical properties can be characterized using techniques such as nanoindentation and tensile testing. By optimizing the synthesis conditions and composition of MOF, their mechanical properties can be improved. MOFs exhibit a range of electrical properties, including conductivity, dielectric constant, and piezoelectricity. These properties can be tuned by introducing specific metal ions or ligands as well as through post-synthesis modifications. By understanding and optimizing the electrical properties of MOFs, they can be used for applications such as energy storage and conversion. Table 4 shows the techniques to tune the properties of MOF.

Table 4 Techniques to tune the properties of MOF
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4 Applications of MOFs in Catalysis

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have shown great potential in catalysis owing to their high surface area, tunable porosity, and ability to incorporate a variety of functional groups. MOFs have been used as catalysts for C–C bond formation reactions such as the coupling of aryl halides and alkynes [76, 77]. One study reported a copper-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the formation of C–C bonds, with a turnover number of up to 5000 and a turnover frequency of up to 80 h−1[78].

MOFs have also been used as heterogeneous catalysts for epoxidation reactions such as the conversion of styrene-to-styrene oxide using hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant. A study reported a zirconium-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity and selectivity for the epoxidation of various olefins, with a conversion rate of up to 98% and a selectivity of up to 97% [79]. MOFs have been used as catalysts for the reduction of carbon dioxide to useful chemicals such as cyclic carbonates. One study reported a zinc-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the conversion of epoxides and carbon dioxide to cyclic carbonates with a turnover frequency of up to 680 h−1 [80].

MOFs have also been used as heterogeneous catalysts for the hydrogenation of various organic compounds such as nitrobenzene and aniline. A study reported a palladium-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the hydrogenation of various nitroarenes with a turnover frequency of up to 24 h [81]. MOFs have been used as photocatalysts for various reactions such as the degradation of organic pollutants under visible light. One study reported a porphyrin-based MOF that exhibited high photocatalytic activity for the degradation of Rhodamine B dye under visible light, with a degradation rate of up to 92% in 4 h [82]. Figure 7 shows the applications of MOFs in catalysis process.

Fig. 7
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Applications of MOFs in Catalysis

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4.1 Homogeneous Catalysis

Although MOFs are typically used as heterogeneous catalysts because of their solid-state nature, there has been increasing interest in their application as homogeneous catalysts. In homogeneous catalysis, the MOF dissolves in the reaction mixture, allowing greater accessibility to the active sites and potentially higher catalytic activity [83]. MOFs have been used as homogeneous catalysts for the hydrogenation of various organic compounds such as ketones and olefins. One study reported a cobalt-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the hydrogenation of various ketones, with a turnover frequency of up to 6200 h−1 [84]. MOFs have also been used as homogeneous catalysts for oxidation reactions such as the conversion of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones. A previous study reported a copper-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes or carboxylic acids, with a selectivity of up to 98% [85].

MOFs have been used as homogeneous catalysts for the reduction of carbon dioxide to useful chemicals such as formic acid or methanol. One study reported a copper-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the reduction of carbon dioxide to formic acid with a turnover frequency of up to 8800 h−1[86]. MOFs have also been used as homogeneous catalysts for cross-coupling reactions such as the Suzuki–Miyaura coupling of aryl halides and boronic acids. A previous study reported a nickel-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the cross-coupling of various aryl halides and boronic acids, with a turnover number of up to 5300 [87]. MOFs have been used as homogeneous catalysts for polymerization reactions such as the polymerization of cyclic esters. One study reported a zinc-based MOF that exhibited high catalytic activity for the polymerization of ε-caprolactone, with a conversion rate of up to 98% and molecular weight of up to 50,000 g/mol [88]. MOFs have shown potential as homogeneous catalysts for various reactions, owing to their tunable properties and high catalytic activity.

4.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have been widely investigated as heterogeneous catalysts owing to their tunable structures, high surface areas, and potential for post-synthesis modifications. Selective oxidation reactions are important in the chemical industry for producing fine chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and agrochemicals. MOFs have been used as heterogeneous catalysts for these reactions owing to their ability to selectively activate oxygen molecules. For example, a cobalt-based MOF (Co-MOF-74) has been used for the selective oxidation of sulfides to sulfoxides using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidant [89]. The Co-MOF-74 catalyst exhibited high activity, selectivity, and stability compared to conventional metal oxide catalysts [90].

Carbon dioxide (CO2) conversion is important for mitigating climate change and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. MOFs have been used as heterogeneous catalysts for the conversion of CO2 into value-added chemicals, such as methanol, formic acid, and cyclic carbonates. For example, a zirconium-based MOF (UiO-66-NH2) has been used for the selective conversion of CO2 to cyclic carbonates using epoxides as the co-reactant [91]. The UiO-66-NH2 catalyst exhibited higher activity, selectivity, and stability than conventional metal oxide catalysts. Hydrogenation reactions are important in the chemical industry for producing fuels and chemicals. MOFs have been used as heterogeneous catalysts for these reactions owing to their ability to activate hydrogen molecules. For example, a palladium-based MOF (Pd-MOF-74) has been used for the hydrogenation of alkenes to alkanes using molecular hydrogen as the reducing agent [92]. The Pd-MOF-74 catalyst exhibited higher activity and selectivity than conventional palladium catalysts.

MOFs have also been investigated as photocatalysts for various reactions including water splitting, CO2 reduction, and pollutant degradation. For example, a cadmium-based MOF (Cd-MOF-74) has been used as a photocatalyst for the degradation of organic dyes under visible-light irradiation [93]. The Cd-MOF-74 catalyst exhibited higher activity and stability than conventional semiconductor photocatalysts. MOFs have shown great potential as heterogeneous catalysts for various reactions owing to their tunable structures, high surface areas, and potential for post-synthesis modifications. These applications highlight the versatility of MOFs as catalysts and their potential for sustainable and efficient production of chemicals and materials.

4.3 Biocatalysis

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as a promising class of porous materials with a wide range of applications in various fields. MOFs have shown great potential in biocatalysis owing to their high surface area, tunable pore size, and catalytic activity. MOFs have been used to encapsulate enzymes, protect them from harsh environments, and improve enzyme stability and activity. For example, lipase encapsulated in MIL-101(Cr) MOF resulted in a 2.5-fold increase in activity and enhanced stability at high temperatures and in organic solvents [94].

MOFs can also mimic the catalytic properties of enzymes, thus making them attractive alternatives for biocatalytic applications. For instance, the UiO-66-NH2 MOF was found to catalyze the oxidation of 3,5-di-tert-butylcatechol (DTBC) with an efficiency similar to that of the natural enzyme catechol oxidase (COx) [95]. MOFs can serve as a support for the immobilization of enzymes, allowing easy separation and recycling of biocatalysts. A recent study reported the immobilization of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) on MIL-101(Cr) MOF, resulting in a stable and reusable biocatalyst for the oxidation of 2,2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) [96].

MOFs can also be used for the controlled release of enzymes, enabling sustained enzymatic activity over prolonged periods. For example, the β-galactosidase enzyme encapsulated in ZIF-8 MOF showed sustained release and retained 70% of its activity even after 72 h [97]. Chemoenzymatic cascade reactions involve the use of both chemical and enzymatic catalysts in a single reaction to achieve high selectivity and efficiency. MOFs have been used as platforms for such reactions because of their ability to host both chemical and enzymatic catalysts within their pores. For example, a bifunctional MOF catalyst was developed for the one-pot synthesis of benzofuran derivatives using an aldol reaction followed by intramolecular cyclization catalyzed by a β-glucosidase enzyme [98]. The MOF catalyst exhibited high selectivity and stability, making it a promising platform for chemoenzymatic cascade reactions.

MOFs have also been used for the biocatalytic conversion of biomass into value-added products. For instance, a MOF-based enzyme cascade was developed for the conversion of cellulose to glucose, which was then converted to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) using a MOF-supported acid catalyst [99]. The MOF-supported biocatalysts exhibited high efficiency and selectivity, indicating their potential for the large-scale production of biofuels and chemicals from biomass. MOFs have shown great potential in biocatalysis for various applications including enzyme encapsulation, enzyme mimicking, enzyme immobilization, controlled release of enzymes, chemo-enzymatic cascade reactions, and biocatalytic conversion of biomass [100]. These applications highlight the versatility of MOFs as biocatalysts and their potential for sustainable and efficient production of chemicals and materials. Table 5 shows the application and reaction of MOF in the catalysis process.

Table 5 Application of MOF in catalysis
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5 Applications of MOFs in Gas Storage

5.1 Storage of Hydrogen

One potential application of MOFs is the storage of hydrogen, which is an important component of fuel cell technology. MOFs offer a high surface area and tunable pore size, making them attractive materials for hydrogen storage. Mg-MOF-74 has a high surface area and excellent thermal stability, making it a promising candidate for hydrogen storage. A study found that at 77 K and 1 bar, Mg-MOF-74 could store up to 6.2 wt% hydrogens [101]. Zn2(BDC)2(DABCO) has a high hydrogen storage capacity of up to 6.9 wt% at 77 K and 1 bar. It also exhibited good stability and maintained its hydrogen storage capacity after multiple adsorption and desorption cycles [102]. MIL-101 had a very high surface area and pore volume, making it an attractive material for hydrogen storage. A study found that at 77 K and 1 bar, MIL-101 could store up to 11.8 wt% hydrogen [103].

NU-1000 had a large surface area and well-defined pore structure, making it a promising material for hydrogen storage. A study found that at 77 K and 1 bar, NU-1000 could store up to 15.2 wt% hydrogen [104]. MOF-5 has been extensively studied for hydrogen storage because of its high surface area and tunable pore size. A study found that at 77 K and 1 bar, MOF-5 could store up to 4.5 wt% hydrogen [105]. HKUST-1 has a high surface area and thermal stability and has been studied for hydrogen storage. One study found that at 77 K and 1 bar, HKUST-1 can store up to 3.7 wt% hydrogen [106]. Although MOFs have shown promising results for hydrogen storage, there are still challenges to be addressed before they can be used in practical applications. For example, the need for high pressure and low temperature for hydrogen storage limits its potential applications [107]. Additionally, stability and safety concerns must be addressed before MOFs can be used in fuel-cell applications. Figure 8 shows the applications of MOFs in various gas storage applications.

Fig. 8
figure 8

Applications of MOFs in Gas Storage

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5.2 Storage of Methane

Another potential application of MOFs is in the storage of methane, which is an important fuel source for vehicles and power generation. MOFs have been investigated as materials for methane storage owing to their high surface area, tunable pore size, and ability to selectively adsorb methane [108]. MOF-74 has a high surface area and excellent stability, making it a promising candidate for methane storage. A study found that at 298 K and 65 bar, MOF-74 could store up to 218 cm3 of methane per gram of MOF [109]. ZIF-8 has a relatively high surface area and good thermal stability and has been studied for methane storage. A study found that ZIF-8 could store up to 164 cm3 of methane per gram of MOF at 298 K and 65 bar [110]. MIL-101 has a very high surface area and a large pore volume, making it an attractive material for methane storage. A study found that MIL-101 can store up to 254 cm3 of methane per gram of MOF at 298 K and 35 bar [111]. Although MOFs have shown promise for methane storage, there are still challenges to be addressed in the development of MOFs for practical applications. For example, the need for high pressure and low temperature for methane storage limits their potential use. In addition, there are safety concerns related to the flammability of methane.

IRMOF-1 has a high surface area and good thermal stability, making it a potential material for methane storage. A study found that at 298 K and 65 bar, IRMOF-1 could store up to 115 cm3 of methane per gram of MOF [112]. MOF-177 has a high surface area and a large pore volume, making it an attractive candidate for methane storage. A study found that at 298 K and 65 bar, MOF-177 could store up to 168 cm3 of methane per gram of MOF [112]. MIL-101(Cr) has a high surface area and a large pore volume and has been studied for methane storage. A study found that MIL-101 (Cr) can store up to 256 cm3 of methane per gram of MOF at 298 K and 65 bar [113].

5.3 Storage of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change, and its storage is important for mitigating climate change. MOFs have been studied for their potential use in CO2 capture and storage because of their high surface area and tunable pore size. MOF-177 had a large surface area and pore volume, making it an attractive material for CO2 storage. A study found that at 298 K and 1 bar, MOF-177 could store up to 4.5 mmol/g CO2. (Chen et al., 2010). ZIF-8 has high CO2 adsorption capacity and good thermal stability, making it a promising material for CO2 capture. One study found that ZIF-8 can store up to 2.65 mmol/g CO2 at 298 K and 1 bar. (Li et al., 2009). NOTT-300 MOF has high CO2 adsorption capacity and selectivity, making it a potential material for CO2 capture from flue gas. A study found that at 298 K and 1 bar, NOTT-300 could store up to 4.4 mmol/g of CO2. Table 6 shows the application of MOF in gas storage.

Table 6 Application of MOF in gas storage
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6 Applications of MOFs in Gas Separation

6.1 Separation of Oxygen

MOFs have also been extensively studied for the separation of oxygen from other gases, such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide. One of the most widely studied MOFs for oxygen separation is ZIF-8, which has high selectivity for oxygen over nitrogen and carbon dioxide owing to its pore size and affinity for oxygen molecules. For example, a study demonstrated that ZIF-8 can achieve an oxygen selectivity of up to 12.5 at 25 °C and 1 bar, which is higher than that of many other commonly used oxygen-selective materials [114]. Another study reported an oxygen/nitrogen selectivity of up to 9.2 for a modified version of ZIF-8 [115].

Other MOFs, including MIL-101 (Cr) and UiO-66 (Zr), have also been investigated for oxygen separation [116]. A study reported an oxygen selectivity of 2.6 for MIL-101(Cr) at 25 °C and 1 bar [116], while a study reported an oxygen/nitrogen selectivity of up to 5.5 for UiO-66(Zr) at 298 K and 1 atm [117].

Another MOF that has shown promising results in oxygen separation is ZIF-67. A study reported an oxygen/nitrogen selectivity of up to 6.7 for ZIF-67 at 298 K and 1 atm [118]. The authors attributed this high selectivity to the specific coordination environment of the Zn atoms in the MOF framework, which enhanced the affinity of oxygen molecules for the pore sites. In addition, MOFs have also been investigated for the separation of oxygen from the air, which is a more challenging process because of the low concentration of oxygen in the air (~ 21%). A study reported an oxygen/nitrogen selectivity of up to 2.9 for a modified version of ZIF-8 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, demonstrating the potential of MOFs for air separation applications. MOFs have shown promise for oxygen separation from other gases, including air, owing to their tunable pore sizes and surface chemistries, which can be tailored for specific gas separation applications [119]. Figure 9 shows the applications of MOFs in gas separation.

Fig. 9
figure 9

Applications of MOFs in Gas Separation

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6.2 Separation of Carbon Dioxide

The separation of carbon dioxide (CO2) from other gases is a critical process in many industrial applications, including natural gas processing, carbon capture, and gas purification. MOFs have emerged as promising materials for CO2 separation owing to their tunable pore sizes and surface chemistries, which can be tailored for specific gas separation applications. One of the most widely studied MOFs for CO2 separation is ZIF-8, which exhibits high selectivity for CO2 over nitrogen and methane because of its pore size and affinity for CO2 molecules [120]. For example, Loloei et al. [121] reported a CO2/nitrogen selectivity of up to 44.2 for ZIF-8 at 25 °C and 1 bar, while Kinik et al. [122] reported a CO2/methane selectivity of up to 11.6 for a modified version of ZIF-8.

Other MOFs have also been investigated for CO2 separation, including MIL-101(Cr), UiO-66(Zr), and NOTT-300. A study by Usman et al. [123] reported a CO2/nitrogen selectivity of up to 43.6 for MIL-101(Cr) at 298 K and 1 atm, whereas a study by Wang et al. [124] reported a CO2/methane selectivity of up to 8.9 for NOTT-300 at 25 °C and 1 bar. In addition, MOFs have also been investigated for the selective adsorption of CO2 from flue gas streams, which typically contain a mixture of gases including CO2, nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapour. A study by da silva freitas et al. [125] reported a CO2/nitrogen selectivity of up to 7.8 for a modified version of ZIF-8 under simulated flue gas conditions. MOFs have shown great potential for the separation of CO2 from other gases in a range of applications including natural gas processing and carbon capture.

6.3 Separation of Nitrogen

The separation of nitrogen (N2) from other gases is important in various industrial processes such as nitrogen production, natural gas processing, and air separation. MOFs have been studied for their potential in N2 separation owing to their tunable pore sizes and surface chemistries, which can be tailored for specific gas-separation applications. One of the most extensively studied MOFs for N2 separation is zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8), which has shown high selectivity for N2 over other gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane [126]. For example, a study by Benedetti et al. [127] reported an N2/CO2 selectivity of up to 18.2 and an N2/CH4 selectivity of up to 16.6 for ZIF-8 at 35 °C and 1 bar.

Other MOFs have also been investigated for N2 separation, including MIL-101(Cr), MIL-53(Al), and UiO-66(Zr). Zhao et al. [128] reported an N2/CO2 selectivity of up to 6.5 for MIL-101(Cr) at 298 K and 1 atm, while a study by Naveed et al. [129] reported an N2/CH4 selectivity of up to 8.8 for MIL-53(Al) at 298 K and 1 atm. MOFs have also been explored for the selective removal of N2 from the air, which typically contains a mixture of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. A study by Deng et al. (2015) reported an N2/O2 selectivity of up to 6.3 for ZIF-8 under simulated air conditions. Table 7 shows the application of MOF in the gas separation process.

Table 7 Application of MOF in gas separation
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7 Emerging Trends, Future Directions and Applications of MOFs

Although MOFs have shown promising potential in various applications, several challenges associated with their synthesis and characterization must be overcome for their widespread adoption. The Synthesis of MOFs with desired properties can be challenging and often relies on empirical trial and error methods. This lack of reproducibility can hinder the development and commercialization of MOFs for various applications. MOFs are typically synthesized under carefully controlled conditions, and exposure to moisture, heat, or acidic/basic conditions can cause structural degradation, leading to performance loss.

The synthesis of MOFs is typically performed in small quantities, and scaling up to industrial production levels can be challenging because of the difficulty in maintaining the required conditions during synthesis [130]. Characterization of MOFs can be difficult because of their complex structures, and the techniques used to characterize them, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and infrared (IR) spectroscopy, may not provide complete structural information. The cost of MOF synthesis is high because of the use of expensive starting materials, and the development of cost-effective synthesis methods is crucial for their widespread adoption. Several studies have addressed these challenges and proposed potential solutions, including the use of alternative synthesis methods, the development of more robust MOFs, and improvements in characterization techniques. For example, the use of microwave-assisted synthesis has been shown to improve the reproducibility and scalability of MOF synthesis [131], and the incorporation of metal–organic polyhedra into MOFs can improve their structural stability [132]. Advanced characterization techniques such as high-resolution electron microscopy (HRTEM) and synchrotron radiation techniques can provide detailed structural information [133].

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have attracted significant research attention in recent years owing to their potential applications in gas storage, separation, catalysis, sensing, and drug delivery. There is a need to develop novel synthetic approaches for the preparation of MOFs with specific functionalities and properties. Researchers have already made significant progress in this area, with several new MOFs synthesized using novel methods such as electrochemical synthesis and microwave-assisted synthesis. A recent study reported the synthesis of a new MOF using a microwave-assisted approach that exhibited excellent CO2 adsorption properties [134].

MOFs have shown great potential for catalytic applications because of their tunable properties and high surface area. Researchers have demonstrated the use of MOFs in various catalytic reactions such as olefin metathesis and C–H activation. A recent study reported the use of a MOF catalyst for the selective oxidation of cyclohexene, which showed excellent catalytic activity and selectivity [135]. MOFs have shown potential for energy storage applications, particularly in the field of electrochemical energy storage. The use of MOFs in supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells has been investigated. For example, a recent study reported the use of a MOF in a lithium-sulfur battery, which showed improved cycling stability and rate capability [136]. MOFs have also been explored for drug delivery applications owing to their unique properties such as high surface area and tunable pore sizes. Researchers have demonstrated the use of MOFs in the delivery of a variety of drugs, including anticancer drugs and antibiotics. For example, a recent study reported the use of a MOF as a carrier for an anticancer drug, which showed improved drug delivery and increased efficacy [137].

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have great potential for commercialization and industrial applications owing to their unique properties and versatility [138]. MOFs can be tailored for specific applications, making them attractive for various applications, including gas separation, catalysis, drug delivery, and sensing [139]. One of the most promising areas for commercialization is gas separation. MOFs have shown high selectivity and capacity for gases, such as CO2, CH4, and H2, making them useful in gas storage and separation applications [140]. For example, MOFs have been developed for natural gas storage and purification, where they can replace traditional adsorbents, such as activated carbon. MOFs can also be used for carbon capture and storage, which are critical for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from industrial processes. MOFs also have the potential for catalysis applications, where they can provide a high surface area and tunable porosity for enhanced catalytic activity. MOFs can be used as catalysts for various reactions, including hydrogenation, oxidation, and C–C coupling. MOFs have shown promise in industrial processes such as the production of fine chemicals, petrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals [141].

MOFs have been developed as drug delivery vehicles owing to their high loading capacity, controlled release, and targeted delivery. MOFs can protect drugs from degradation, improve solubility, and enhance bioavailability. MOFs can also be functionalized with targeting ligands or imaging agents for personalized medical applications [142]. MOFs have the potential to detect gases, chemicals, and biomolecules in sensing applications. MOFs can be designed with specific functionalities to detect analytes with high selectivity and sensitivity. MOFs can be used in environmental monitoring, food safety, and medical diagnostics.

Categorization of the MOF research field based on the applications of MOFs in different industries or sectors can provide a more practical and tangible approach to understanding the impact of MOF research in real-world contexts. This viewpoint would categorize MOFs into five possible categories: Energy and Environment, Biomedical, Electronics and Photonics, Industrial, and Agriculture and Food. Each category would include MOFs that have potential applications in specific industries or sectors. For instance, the Energy and Environment category would encompass MOFs used for energy storage and conversion, gas separation, water purification, and catalysis. The Biomedical category would include MOFs with potential applications in drug delivery, biosensing, and tissue engineering. Meanwhile, MOFs with electronic or optical properties that make them useful for sensors, displays, or data storage would be classified under Electronics and Photonics. The Industrial category would include MOFs with applications in the chemical and manufacturing industries, such as catalysts for chemical reactions or adsorbents for gas separation. Lastly, MOFs that have potential applications in agriculture and food industries, such as fertilizers or food packaging, would be included in the Agriculture and Food category. This new categorization can provide a fresh perspective on MOF research, highlighting the practical applications of these materials in different sectors and facilitating collaborations between researchers in different industries. Figure 10 shows the applications of MOFs in various sectors.

Fig. 10
figure 10

Applications of MOFs in various sectors [147]

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8 Conclusion

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have great potential for commercialization and industrial applications owing to their unique properties and versatility. MOFs can be tailored for specific applications, making them attractive for various applications, including gas separation, catalysis, drug delivery, and sensing. MOFs have shown high selectivity and capacity for gases, such as CO2, CH4, and H2, making them useful in gas storage and separation applications. They have potential in catalytic applications, where they can provide a high surface area and tunable porosity for enhanced catalytic activity. MOFs have been developed as drug delivery vehicles because of their high loading capacity, controlled release, and targeted delivery. They also have the potential to detect gases, chemicals, and biomolecules, with high selectivity and sensitivity.

The prospects of MOFs are promising, as ongoing research is exploring new applications and ways to improve their properties. One area with potential for development is energy storage, as MOFs can be designed with high surface area and porosity to improve the performance of batteries and supercapacitors. Additionally, MOFs have the potential for water treatment applications, such as desalination and contaminant removal, owing to their high selectivity for specific contaminants. MOFs also have the potential for biomedical applications, such as cancer therapy and imaging, as they can be functionalized with targeting ligands or imaging agents for improved specificity and sensitivity. MOFs can also be tailored for gas-sensing applications, such as detecting toxic gases or monitoring air quality, by designing them with specific functionalities for detecting analytes with high selectivity and sensitivity. Finally, MOFs have the potential for various industrial applications, such as gas storage and separation, catalysis, and sensing, as they can be tailored for specific applications. Overall, the prospects of MOFs are bright, as they have the potential to address critical societal challenges in energy, environment, and healthcare, making them a promising area of research for years to come.