1 Introduction

The removal of drilled solids is the key to drill securely, quickly, and within less cost. Drilled solids raise drill expenses, harm reservoirs, and add to the expense of cleanup. Some of the issues with drilled solids are:

  1. (1)

    Formations are harmed by filtrate,

  2. (2)

    Limits on how fast you can drill,

  3. (3)

    Issues with holes,

  4. (4)

    Difficulties of stuck pipes,

  5. (5)

    Complications with circulation,

  6. (6)

    Direct expenses of drilling fluid, and

  7. (7)

    Expenses of disposal rises.

The first most important purpose of a drilling mud is to reduce waste content around the drilling tool and throughout the hole. However, by doing so, the mud takes on the load of the clippings, and if the clippings are not cleared, the mud soon lacks the capacity to clear the hole, resulting in massive filter cakes. Clippings must always be continuously cleaned to allow on-site recyclability of the drilling mud. As the world develop, it prefers more modern, reliable, and eco-friendly processes as compared to classic old ones.

Using nanofluids in drilling fluids is one of the best methods to improve the performance. A lot of research can be found on this topic, and everyone gives 5 to 10 functions of drilling fluids/muds. But the major purposes that drilling fluids serve are as follows: (1) hold debris (drill materials); (2) extract waste from the bore’s base and well hole, and let these to the top; (3) ensure wellbore strength while controlling pressure of formation; (4) permeable structures get sealed; (5) the drill unit is kept cool, lubricated, and supported; (6) fluid energy is transmitted to tools and bit; (7) reduce the amount of damage to the reservoir; (8) allow for proper assessment of formation; (9) corrosion is controlled; (10) allow for easier cementing and finishing; (11) reduce environmental effect as much as possible and stop the development of gas hydrates. The history chart of drilling fluids is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Background of drilling fluids [1]

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Hoelscher et al. [2] explained that in the last decade, nanotechnology has gained the attention of researchers, with various applications in a wide range of sectors. Hundreds of nanotechnology-based items are available, with the majority of them being used in the medical, defense, and coating sectors.

Mansoor et al. [3] studied that drilling issues are mostly solved by refining the properties related to filtration and rheology of drilling fluids based on water (WDFs). Researchers looked at nanofluid, prepared by using organic aloe vera as base fluid and CuO as nanoparticles, in WDF, to help deal with the issues related to drilling. For this investigation, a two-step approach was employed to create the nanofluids; aloe vera was used as the base fluid with 3 separate wt% of CuO nanoparticles. The characteristics related to rheology and loss of filtrate for produced drilling fluids were evaluated at a variety of temperatures. For WDF, the viscosity decreased by around 61.7% when it was heated at temperature of 90 °C.

Farahbod [4] used digital densitometer, digital viscometer, digital calorimeter, and portable electromagnetic handheld current meter to measure density, viscosity, heat capacity, and velocity respectively of nano-based drilling fluids. In this work, the thermal and the physical characteristics of fluids used when drilling were altered using carbon nanotubes and titanium dioxide nanoparticles. The results demonstrated that particles of titanium dioxide showed size reduction 76 to 54 nm, and the quantity of specific heat increases by approximately 1.26%. Additionally, according to the findings of the experiments, mixing of carbon nanotubes in the drilling fluid had a convective heat to conductive heat ratio that was about 30% greater as compared to the addition of titanium dioxide nanoparticles.

Moraveji et al. [5] studied the rheological properties of glycol-based drilling fluids (GBDFs) after the addition of amorphous silica nanoparticles in it. For the purpose of measuring the rheological characteristics at high temperatures, an OFFITE E900 viscometer was also employed. After the nanoparticles were added, the glycol fluid’s apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strength all rose. The characteristics of GBDF related to rheology got enhanced by increasing the percentage weight of nanoparticles. Perween et al. [6] investigated the impact of ageing on rheological and filtration capabilities. The mud samples were aged in an oven at temperature of 110 °C for 16 h in hot rolling test to measure thermal stability. The experimental findings demonstrated that ZnTiO3 nanoparticles have a considerable impact on the characteristics of drilling fluids, substantially reduced the loss of filtrate, thermally stabilized the DF, and enhanced the characteristics related to rheology.

The mud functions are to effectively block the flow of water in the wellbore. The approach of using traditional drilling fluid results in decrease fluid loss, or leak off cannot be utilized in shale formations. Like the Marcellus, because of low permeability of the shale there is formation of the filter cake. Nanoparticle’s suspensions in fluids are known as nanofluids that exhibit substantial property improvement even at low nanoparticle concentrations. The use of nanoparticles as a drilling fluids was shown to be useful by many researchers [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14]. Hence, nanoparticle-based drilling fluids have been summarized in this review. Therefore, this paper introduces the various nano-based drilling fluids in detail to make drilling fluids more efficient along with thermal and mechanical properties. This review also gives some future recommendations to investigate new kinds of nanoparticles in drilling fluids which will help in fighting severe problems in the process of drilling operations.

2 Nanoparticles in drilling fluids

Various types of nanoparticles have been investigated as drilling fluids by different authors. Vryzas and Kelessidis [15] specified that nanoparticles are regarded to be ideal choices for smarter drilling fluid composition, i.e., fluids with tailored rheological and filtration characteristics, because of their distinctive physico-chemical characteristics. Nevertheless, because of the high risk of adopting new technology, their use in the oil and gas sector has yet to be completely realized. Numerous researchers have investigated the use of different nanoparticles, ranging from commercial to user particles, to establish drilling fluids with improved properties that can resist extreme downhole climates, especially at high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) situations, over the last few years.

The kind, dimension, and form of nanoparticles, as well as the volumetric concentration, the inclusion of various surfactants, and the use of an external magnetic field, are all essential elements to consider. According to the findings of numerous research, nanoparticles offer a great deal of promise for usage as drilling fluid enhancers in order to solve difficult drilling issues. Nevertheless, in order to fully utilize the potential of these particles, there are still difficulties that must be defeated.

Rafati et al. [16] specified that improved drilling and recovery methods are required for nontraditional hydrocarbon resources such as shale gas, shale oil, deep water, and arctic reservoirs. Moreover, it is important to reduce the ecological impact related to oil recovery procedures. Nanotechnology has proved to be a viable answer to these problems in the oil and gas sector. Several researchers have been performed to investigate the use of nanotechnology to improve drilling fluids. Improvement of rheological, filtration, and heat transport characteristics, as well as friction minimization in drilling fluids, were studied in such research. Researchers further revealed that nanoparticles may enhance fluid’s thermal stability, lubricity, hole cleaning, and wellbore stability, as well as reduce the development of hydrates in the fluid circulation system.

Mehdi et al. [17] studied that with the rising need for oil products, new hydrocarbon sources must be explored. This would need digging wells in unusual formations and under challenging circumstances. Drilling fluids are determined to account for 5 to 15% of total capital investment and frequently lead to the collapse of drilling operations. As a result, it is critical to adjust drilling fluid characteristics to the wellbore environment. As a result, extremely efficient and cost-effective drilling fluids are required. Drilling fluids of the future must have improved rheological characteristics, as well as greater temperature and filtration control characteristics. Durability of additives, severe fluid loss, and breakdown of polymers are just a couple of minor challenges that a drilling fluid may face, all of which can contribute to drooping of weighting forces and rock cutting.

There are several research articles available that show the improvement in the drilling fluids by application on nanofluids and particles in it. Aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide, titanium dioxide, and copper oxide have been introduced at 2 distinct percentages to a 7% bentonite water-based mud: 0.5 vol% and 1.5 vol% by Alsaba et al. [18]. The rheological characteristics of the drilling fluid, involving plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strength, were measured utilizing a standardized viscometer and compared to a source drilling fluid containing 7% bentonite to account for the effect of nanoparticle additions. Furthermore, quantitative research was carried out to help comprehend the effect of various parameters on hole cleaning efficiency, such as rheological characteristics, hole size, and flow rate. Aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide, titanium dioxide, and copper oxide have been introduced at 2 distinct percentages to a 7% bentonite water-based mud: 0.5 vol% and 1.5 vol%. The rheological characteristics of the drilling fluid, involving plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strength, were measured utilizing a standardized viscometer and compared to a reference drilling fluid containing 7% bentonite to account for the effect of nanoparticle additions. Furthermore, quantitative research was carried out to help comprehend the effect of various parameters on hole cleaning efficiency, such as rheological characteristics, hole size, and flow rate. When rheological properties seem to be high, the effect of changing the flow rate seems to be minor, according to this research work. Furthermore, as compared to the base example having just 7% bentonite, the effect of nanoparticles inclusion on hole cleaning was much more evident for bigger hole diameters with greater cutting sizes, demonstrating the potential of utilizing nanoparticles to improve hole cleaning.

Anoop et al. [19] investigated the rheological properties of natural oil-based nanofluids under HPHT. Mechanically dispersed commonly available SiO2 nanoparticles in a specially formulated paraffinic mineral oil (Therm Z-32) yielded nanofluids for this study. This research looks at mineral oil and nanofluids at 1 and 2 vol%. An HPHT viscometer is used to determine the rheological properties of the base fluid and nanofluids. The viscosity of the nanofluids is determined at pressures ranging from 100 kPa to 42 MPa, and temperatures ranging from 25 to 140 \(^\circ{\rm C}\), and at different shear rates during the performance of experiment. The study revealed that when the pressure was rose, the viscosity values of both nanofluids and the base fluid rose. Furthermore, at HTHP nanofluids exhibited non-Newtonian behavior.

The particle size distribution and morphology of silica nanoparticles were specified by Ghanbari et al. [20] used DLS analysis and FE-SEM after they were synthesized by using solgel technique inside an acidic environment comprising TEOS and HCl. The substance is extremely monodispersed and made up of amorphous SiO2 nanoparticles, according to the findings. Following that, a simple method for nanoparticle’s dispersion in bentonite suspensions, low-salinity, and high-salinity muds was described, and the stability of the dispersions was examined under various experimental circumstances. Lastly, the API filter press test was used to examine the influence of silica nanoparticles on rheological characteristics and fluid's filtration behavior. Under this investigation, the provided dispersion approach outperformed the prior dispersion approaches, and this method of dispersion must be used when adding nanoparticles in drilling muds.

Abdo et al. [21] produced and checked sepiolite in drilling muds in its nanoform to enhance the rheological characteristics and fluid loss of the drilling fluids under usual and high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. The introduction of 4% by weight nanosepiolite of 30–60 nm to a base drilling mud enhanced its rheological characteristics and stabilized it under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions, according to the findings. When compared to base drilling fluids lacking nanosepiolite, fluid loss was considerably reduced. The fluid loss was not affected by raising the temperature and pressure of the base drilling fluids containing nanosepiolite.

Thermal decomposition of biopolymers is among the most expensive drilling hazards, because it leads to additional maintenance issues including barite sag, fluid loss, pipe adhesion, drilling stoppage, and so forth. As a result, developing a drilling fluid capable of preserving biopolymer characteristics under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions is a major ongoing issue for the drilling and petroleum industries. The study by Halali et al. [22] proposed CNTs as the required addition to meet this demand. The suitable surfactants were Tween 80, PMMA, and ACUMER, all of which exhibited excellent tolerance with the CNT. The level of reliability of these kinds of fluids determines their efficiency. As a result, “rheological characteristics, filtration, and zeta potential” were used to investigate fluid stabilization from several perspectives. The findings show that CNT can increase drilling fluid’s viscosity, particularly at lower shear rates, that is consistent to fluid shear thinning in the presence of CNT. It also increases the exact value of “zeta potential,” which was previously under − 20 mV across all nanofluids. It may minimize filtering through over 93.3% under high-pressure and high-temperature settings, improved fluid thermal conductivity by 12%, and increased shale recovery by 10.5%, adding to the CNT benefits.

The utilization of CuO and ZnO nanofluids made utilizing different base fluids like xanthan gum, PEG, and PVP to enhance the thermal, electrical, and fluid-loss characteristics of water-based mud which were studied by Ponmani et al. [23] The thermal and electrical characteristics of NWBM were improved with the addition of nanofluids, making them more suitable for sophisticated drilling operations. Through exploiting the development of composites and aggregates induced by the presence of nano-, micro-, and macroparticles in the mud system, nanofluid-based drilling fluids can play an essential role in preventing lost circulation. The introduction of tiny quantities of nanofluids improves fluid loss and some other mud characteristics, demonstrating nanofluid-enhanced water-based drilling mud’s (NWBM’s) advantages in complicated settings. Microfluid-enhanced water-based drilling mud’s (MWBM’s) different characteristics were also examined and compared to those of NWBM. Compared to MWBM and WBM, NWBM regularly outperformed. Additional study concerning different aspects of nanofluid-based drilling fluids is required in order to better learn and improve their ability to perform in filtration control and pore plugging in porous medium.

Aftab et al. [24] used ZnO nanoparticles with water as a base fluid. Experimentation was performed on low-pressure and low-temperature settings; then, same experiment was performed on high pressure and high temperature. Quantity of nanozinc oxide particles used for this purpose was 1 g in water-based drilling fluids. This addition helped in increasing the rheological properties of DFs, reducing the loss of filtrate, and also decrease in friction coefficient occurred at high pressure and high temperature scenario.

According to Taraghikhah et al. [25], in comparison to typical shale inhibitors, the nanodrilling fluid with lower than 1% wt/v nanoadditive has an effective shale recovering. Pore plugging as a physical shale inhibitory method is validated by SEM pictures of obtained shales, following shale recovery tests. Regardless of the reality that pore plugging is the main method for shale inhibition in the presence of nanoadditives, the adhesive nature of nanosilica and the deposition of nanoparticles on the surface of shales define another mechanism known as physisorption, in which nanosilica forms a hydrophobic layer on the shale’s surface to prevent water invasion. SEM scans also confirmed this feature. Lubricity tests revealed that this nanoadditive is an effective lubricant in addition to inhibiting shale. This nanoadditive improved other mud characteristics, including rheological characteristics. It does, though, have a small impact on fluid loss management. As the concentration utilized in this experiment is just 1 wt%, so it was assumed to be cost-effective.

According to Akhtarmanesh et al. [26], Wellbore’s instability creates plenty of issues, such as the need for an expensive drilling operation. Sloughing or swelling shales, as well as abnormally pressurized shale deposits, cause several wellbore abnormalities. Pore pressure propagation and chemical evaporation are the major processes in shale disruptions, with various degrees of effect, in terms of physical and chemical characteristics of shale and thermodynamics conditions. This article looks at these processes to see how important they are in terms of wellbore stabilization. Pore throat physical blocking is a sensible method to minimize pressure rise around the wellbore for wellbore stability management. For this purpose, nanoparticles were utilized. Membrane Efficiency Screening Equipment (MESE) was utilized to test the behavior of various water-based drilling fluids (WBDFs) on pressure of pore. Three separate drilling fluids, each with its own set of additives, were tested in contact with the Gurpi formation, with and without the inclusion of nanoparticles. The Gurpi formation may be found in Iran’s western and southern sedimentary basins. The introduction of nanoparticles resulted in much superior physical plugging, resulting in a drop in porosity and an increase in pressure. One of the nanoparticle-based mud compositions decreased “pressure increase” around the wellbore by up to 97%.

To reduce wellbore instability concerns in problematic shale deposits, specific formulations of drilling fluids with high shale inhibitory properties are required according to Jain and Mahto [27]. In this work, polyacrylamide/clay nanocomposite (PANC) was employed as a drilling fluid additive after prepared. PANC outperformed partly hydrolyzed polyacrylamide in terms of shale encapsulation, according to the results of the experiments. As a result, it was recommended that synthesized nanocomposite can be utilized as a drilling fluid addition in a WBDF system that is inhibitive.

3 Different types of nano-based drilling fluids

Drilling fluids are important and crucial for drilling process and used as lubricant, for wellbore cleaning and for shale inhibition. Properties of drilling fluids were important for efficient drilling fluids application. Drilling fluids were used to lubricate and cool the drilling bit. Under high temperature and pressure, drilling fluids were unable to function properly. This problem allows the researchers to come up with the better ideas. Now, the research was being conducted to use such fluid along with drilling fluids that enhance the rheological properties of the fluid. So, nanofluids were used along with the drilling fluids. Different drilling fluids that were used for drilling of petroleum was carbon nanotubes, graphenes, and nanocellulose as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Various types of nano-based drilling fluids

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3.1 Graphene-based drilling fluids

Graphene-based drilling fluids are widely used in petroleum industry and proved to be efficient in terms of performance. Naseer et al. [28] experimentally investigated the performance of drilling fluids using nanoparticles. They observed that by the addition of nanoparticles, the rheological properties of drilling mud were modified under high temperature and pressure. Xuan et al. [29] carried out a study on the graphite oxide–based nanoparticles for fluid loss control. They studied the thermal stability of graphene oxide under high temperature and pressure. They observed that graphene oxide was thermal stable at 150 \(^\circ{\rm C}\). Taha et al. [30] studied the application of nanographenes in enhancing the performance of drilling fluids. They concluded that various laboratory tests show that nanographene has the ability of torque reduction round about 50%. Chai et al. [31] experimentally investigated the properties of carbon nanotube/graphene. They observed that by the adding nanomaterials, the thermophysical properties of drilling fluids were enhanced. Also, nanoparticles do not affect the quality of drilling fluid such as shear stress and viscosity.

Ho et al. [32] performed experimental investigation to study the rheological properties of drilling fluid (oil based) using graphene’s nanosheets. They concluded that the viscosity of oil-based drilling fluids using graphene was higher as compared to hydrogenated oil-based drilling fluids. Chai et al. [33] studied thermophysical properties of drilling fluids using graphene nanosheets. They observed that by increasing the concentration of nanoparticles to a temperature of 50 \(^\circ{\rm C}\), 14.4% enhancement in thermal conductivity was recorded. Paul et al. [34] reviewed the tribological performance of drilling fluids using nanolubricants as well as its derivative. Also, nanolubricants provide greater stability while comparing it with micro-sized particles. Yuxiu et al. [35] performed experimental investigation on high performance plunging agent using modified graphene. They used the ethylene-diamine modified with graphene (EDA-G). They observed that ethylene-diamine exhibits high performance at volumetric concentration of 0.2% by weight. Rana et al. [36] studied the properties of glucopyranose grafted with graphene (Glu-Gr) as shale inhibitor. They observed that glucopyranose modified with graphene gives high-inhibition durability and dispersion recovery while comparing it with traditional drilling mud. The mechanism of shale inhibition is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Schematic representation for shale inhibition mechanism [36]

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Zubaidi et al. [37] carried out experimental investigation to improve to improve the properties of drilling fluids using commercial bentonites and local clay. They mixed different nanomaterials like magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, and graphene in commercial bentonites. Different volumetric concentrations were used 0.4%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, and 0.05% respectively. They concluded that magnesium oxide gives better results as compared to other nanomaterials.

Aftab et al. [38] investigated enhancement of rheological properties of water-based mud (WBM). They have used different nanoparticles like graphene nanoplatelet, carbon nanotube, and nanosilica. They concluded that graphene nanoplatelets performed better enhancement in water-based mud as compared to other particles. Ridha et al. [39] investigated the performance filtration of water-based drilling fluid using graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs). Three different samples of water-based drilling fluids were prepared including nanosilica (NS), potassium chloride (KCL), and GNPs. They concluded that at high temperature and every concentration, graphene nanoplatelets indicate effective filtration for water-based drilling fluids.

Rana et al. [40] studied the effect of surfactant addition modified with graphene to improve the rheological. They concluded that by using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as surfactant modified with graphene (SDS-Gr), there was control in fluid loss and rheology of drilling mud was modified. Applications of drilling fluids using graphenes and its derivatives are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Various drilling fluids using graphenes and its derivatives
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3.2 Carbon nanotubes and its derivative-based drilling fluids

Carbon nanotube–based various drilling fluids are also investigated in oil sector. Ibrahim et al. [41] investigated the rheological behavior of drilling fluids. They used the graphene nanoplatelets to improve the dispersion rate in the aqueous solution. They observed high dispersion of graphene nanoplatelets at higher shear rate. Halali et al. [22] perform experimental investigation on stability of the polymeric fluids using carbon nanotubes (CNTs). They concluded that by using carbon nanotubes under high temperature and high pressure, the filtration was reduced to 93.3%. Also, 12% enhancement in thermal conductivity was recorded and shale recovery was increased to 10.5%.

Madkour et al. [42] investigated the performance of polymeric nanocomposites in oil-based drilling fluids. They used graphene nanoplatelets and multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and made nanocomposites using casting techniques. They concluded that polymeric nanocomposites show superior advantages in oil drilling and for lubricating purposes. Ismail et al. [43] investigated novel approach for enhancing the properties of water-based drilling fluids. They used glass bends, nanosilica, and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) to improve the rheological behavior. They concluded that for water-based drilling fluid, MWCNT proved to be better rheological modifier.

Ahmad et al. [44] investigated the polymer-based nanocomposites using carbon nanotubes (CNT) under high temperature. They concluded that by using 2% volumetric concentration of nanocomposites, shale reduction was reduced to 90%. Also, under high temperature, nanocomposites enhance the borehole stability, filtration characteristics, and rheological properties of water-based drilling fluids. Rana et al. [45] investigated the modification in water-based mud using polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) under low temperature and low pressure. They concluded that by using (PVP/SWCNTs) composites, 89.5% dispersion recovery was achieved. Applications of the drilling fluids using carbon nanotubes and its derivatives are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 Carbon nanotubes and its derivatives used as drilling fluids
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3.3 Nanocellulose-based drilling fluids

Nanocellulose-based drilling was studied by different authors. Li et al. [46] measured the performance of water-based fluid using cellulose nanoparticles. They concluded that by using cellulose nanocrystals, reduction in fluid loss and enhancement in rheological properties of fluid were observed. Li et al. [47] also investigated the performance of water-based fluid using polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). They concluded that these nanoparticles produce the synergetic effect and enhance the performance of drilling mud. Song et al. [48] investigated the performance of bentonite-based drilling fluid using cellulose nanoparticles (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs). They observed improvement in the rheological properties of the drilling fluid using cellulose-based nanoparticles. Liu et al. [49] investigated the cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and its application in filtration and rheological properties of fluid. They concluded that cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have good rheological behavior and having better filtration properties.

Hall et al. [50] investigated performance of the water-based fluid using nanocellulose. They concluded that by using nanocellulose along with its derivatives, reduction in fluid loss and enhancement in rheological properties of fluid were observed. Saboori et al. [51] investigated the filtration properties of drilling fluid using polystyrene core and nano carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). They concluded that by using these nanoparticles, the filtration properties of drilling fluid were enhanced. Li et al. [52] performed an investigation on the performance of drilling fluid using cellulose nanocrystals. They concluded that filtration properties and rheological behavior of drilling fluid were improved. Liu et al. [53] investigated the drilling fluid using poly-AMPS-DMA (PAD) composite. They concluded that because of Fe3+ linkage reaction, the stability of nanocomposites was improved.

Hall et al. [54] investigated the performance of drilling fluid using biopolymer bends and nanocellulose. They concluded that by using such nanoparticles, rheological behavior and loss of fluid control were improved. Li et al. [55] investigated the performance of drilling fluid polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and cellulose nanofibers. They concluded that by these nanoparticles, novel rheological behavior as well as filtration properties were also improved. Villada et al. [56] investigated the performance of water-based mud by replacing xanthan gum with cellulose nanofibers. They concluded that by using such nanoparticles, better thermal stability and good rheological behavior of drilling mud were observed. Heggset et al. [57] investigated the temperature stability using nanocellulose dispersion. They concluded that better temperature stability was recoded for cellulose nanocrystals at 140 \(^\circ{\rm C}\). Zoveidavianpoor and Samsuri [58] investigated the filtration control of water-based mud using nanostarch. They concluded that 64.2% improvement in fluid loss was exhibited using nanostarch. The applications of drilling fluids using carbon nanocellulose and its derivatives are listed in Table 3.

Table 3 Drilling fluid based on carbon nanocellulose and its derivatives
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3.4 Other different types of nanoparticles used in drilling fluids

The various other types of drilling fluids have been investigated by different researchers which are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4 Different types of nanoparticle used in drilling fluids
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4 Thermophysical properties of nano-based drilling fluids

In a variety of heat exchange processes, heat transfer fluids (HTFs) serve as the energy carrier [75,76,77]. Since it is readily available, inexpensive, and compatible with a wide range of materials and procedures, water or steam is the most commonly used HTF [78,79,80]. Other HTFs, such as ethylene glycol (EG) and its water mixtures, as well as other oils, are used in specialized applications to extend the temperature range beyond that of water [81, 82]. The most important considerations for evaluating the function and performance of HTFs are their thermophysical parameters, such as thermal conductivity, density, heat capacity, and viscosity [83]. The improved thermophysical features of HTF enable a highly efficient heat transfer technique more specifically for waste heat recovery applications as part of an expanding industrial energy efficiency endeavor [78, 84,85,86]. Heat transfer in any heat transfer medium is limited by finite values of thermophysical parameters. These characteristics are crucial in determining the degree of heat transmission. To modify the heat transfer performance, active and passive strategies are applied. Mechanical processes are examples of active approaches. Altering the fluid characteristics and modifying shape and surface area are examples of passive approaches. Passive approaches are less expensive, more beneficial, and more effective than active techniques. The passive category includes increasing heat transfer by suspending nanoparticles in a base liquid [87]. The system’s performance should improve as a result of nanoparticles addition. The various thermophysical properties of nano-based drilling fluids are given in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Different vital thermophysical properties

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Table 5 enlists the thermophysical properties of frequently used nanoparticles which show specific heat, density, and thermal conductivity values of nanoparticles that are independent from their particle sizes.

Table 5 Thermophysical properties of various nanoparticles [88]
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Multiple mathematical models have been investigated that depict the rheology of drilling fluids that include power law model, Bingham plastic model, Hershel-Buckley model, and Casson model. The model that shows the shear stress-shear rate analysis is sine qua non for pressure drops and hydraulic calculation is best rheological model [89]. The two most vital rheological properties of drilling muds are thixotropic and yield stress [90] and model that predict yield stresses are viscoplastic models or yield stress models. The yield power law also known as Herschel-Buckley rheological model accurately predicts mud rheology and offers many advantages over the Bingham plastic and power law rheological models because it more accurately characterizes mud behavior across the entire shear rate [91].

4.1 Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity of fluids plays an important role in measuring thermal performance. The rate of heat transport in a fluid is substantially determined by the thermal conductivity of the fluid [92,93,94]. The thermal conductivity of drilling fluids increases as the fraction of nanoparticles in working fluids increases. Furthermore, due to Brownian motion at higher temperatures, the thermal conductivity value of a nanofluid is reported to be greater [95]. The thermal conductivity of working fluid is also improving as the surface area of nanoparticles increases. Smaller grain size nanoparticles will have a larger total surface area than nanoparticles with larger grain sizes in this situation. As a result, the area of contact between the nanoparticle surface and the base fluid will grow. Similarly, utilizing particle morphologies that increase the conducting area would result in increased thermal conductivity for the same type of nanoparticles [96]. Table 6 shows thermal conductivity variation of several nanoparticles under different operating conditions.

Table 6 Thermal conductivity variations under different operating conditions
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It fits well with the Maxwell model in the low particle volume fraction because the particle volume fraction is unlimited [105,106,107]. The Wasp model, on the other hand, is identical to the Maxwell model, albeit it does not specify a particle shape [106]. Thermal conductivity models are also described in the literature [108].

4.2 Viscosity

The most significant thermophysical variables determining system pressure drop is viscosity [87]. Nanoparticles are dispersed in base fluids; the viscosity value increases in all circumstances. A high viscosity rating, on the other hand, is not appropriate for fluid systems. The viscosity change of drilling fluids has been the subject of several investigations [109]. Mahbubul et al. [110]conducted a thermophysical investigation of the Al2O3-R141b nanorefrigerant. The studies were carried out in fractions of 0.1–0.4% at temperatures ranging from 5 to 20 \(^\circ{\rm C}\). At a fraction of 0.4%, the greatest viscosity value was attained [95]. Several studies by various authors on viscosity presented in Table 7.

Table 7 Viscosity variation under various conditions for different nanoparticles
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TiO2 and Al2O3 had viscosities about 3 and 200 times higher than the base liquid at higher concentrations (10%) [112]. The most commonly used viscosity models are also discussed in the literature [108] for viscosity calculations.

4.3 Density

The heat transfer capabilities of drilling fluids are influenced by density [113]. In general, introducing nanoparticles to a base liquid lowers the specific heat and raises the density. The density variation has been the subject of several studies as presented in Table 8.

Table 8 Density variation of drilling fluids at different conditions
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4.4 Specific heat capacity

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of matter by 1 °C is known as the specific heat capacity, represented in metric units as J/g K. Unfortunately, the addition of NPs to BF reduces the specific heat capacity of the resulting NF [96]. The specific heat capacity of various fluids is presented in Table 9.

Table 9 Specific heat capacity of various fluids and particles
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5 Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of NP-based drilling fluids should be considered during its operation, and it includes rheological properties and thermal and wellbore stabilities. Boyou et al. [115] used various concentrations of NPs of silica for drilling system to enhance the lift forces. They investigated different NPs and different concentrations of silica NPs. The study concluded that NPs enhanced the performance of drilling system and cutting operations as well. Wang et al. [116] mixed magnesium, aluminum, and silicate NPs in drilling fluid to measure the performance. The rheological as well as thermal stabilities were checked. The results concluded that NP-based drilling fluids decreased use of traditional one. Pourkhalil et al. [117] investigated ZnO NPs in drilling fluid. The effect of ZnO on a shale core was checked by SEM as depicted in Fig. 5. They concluded that NP additives lead to blocking pore spaces in shale samples.

Fig. 5
figure 5

SEM of shale cores a before NP additive and b after adding ZnO NPs [117]

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6 Challenges

The benefits of NP-based drilling fluids have a great impact on enhancing the performance of drilling systems. However, there are also many issues related to it which should be kept in mind during its application. Some of the major issues are [118][118][118]:

  • NP cost should be kept in mind while using it which have a great influence on the project execution.

  • The preparation and production of NPs are also very costly, and this factor should be considered while making it.

  • The various conditions that affect the properties of NPs are also kept in mind during field operation.

  • The chemical composition can be changed during operation, and stability or changing of structure may occur which should be considered during operation.

  • Very less studies have been found related to the analysis of NPs in filed operation, so safety hazards must be considered before using it.

7 Conclusions and future recommendations

The major concluding remarks of this review are:

  • Drilling fluids or muds were introduced that performed various tasks together with cooling. In petroleum engineering, drilling technology is linked to issues including significant loss of fluid, inadequate cleanup of hole, and pipe clogging.

  • Various types of nanoparticles used in literature like CNTs, graphene nanoplates, cellulose type, and other hybrid particles are used in drilling fluids to improve the performance of drilling fluids. The concentration of NPs used in the literature was approximately 3–5 \(\%\).

  • Drilling fluids of different types are proved to be efficient in drilling industry as these fluids travel through the system using pumps known as mud pumps.

  • The different thermophysical properties like thermal conductivity, viscosity, and specific heat capacity of drilling fluids are also discussed in this review to conclude the performance of drilling fluids.

  • The enhancement in value of thermal conductivity was observed to be increased by 10–15 \(\%\). The increment in viscosity was measured to 8–12 \(\%\). The mechanical properties of NP-based drilling fluids also improve the performance.

  • More various types of drilling fluids should be investigated in the future for better performance of drilling fluids. Hybrid combination could be proved to be more efficient than the used one.

  • The production and manufacturing costs are also too high so low-cost nanoparticle-based drilling fluids should be explored by future researchers which will bring a significant cost reduction and uptake the importance of drilling fluids.