Abstract
Wild and cultivated edible and medicinal mushrooms have long been known by humans as a source of valuable food and medicines in Asian and European countries. Currently, only a small fraction of estimated fungal biodiversity has been investigated for their bioactivities and medicinal properties, while mushrooms possess a potential in pharmacy, medicine, cosmetics and food industry. In the kingdom of fungi, mushrooms taxonomically belong to phyla Basidiomycota (class Agaricomycetes) and Ascomycota (class Pezizomycetes) of the subkingdom Dikarya.
Mushrooms, such as truffles (Tuber), morels (Morchella), Agaricus bisporus, Boletus edulis and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species), are considered gourmet healthy food. Mushrooms (Ganoderma and Trametes species, Hericium erinaceus, Lentinula edodes, etc.) are also perspective sources for myco- pharmacological research as source of bioactive molecules (alkaloids, lipids, phenolics, polysaccharides, proteins, steroids, terpenoids, etc.) with more than 130 medicinal effects (anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, hypocholesterolaemic, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, etc.). There is scientific evidence of using mushroom-derived biotech products as dietary food, pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals and other products available in the market.
The current review discusses recent advances in research on the biotechnological potential of mushrooms to develop novel biotech products and perspectives for their applications in human welfare.
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
1 Introduction
Basidiomycota and Ascomycota fungi (classes Agaricomycetes and Pezizomycetes) of the subkingdom Dikarya, which develop epigeal and hypogeal fruiting bodies or mushrooms, are known to mankind not only as valuable gourmet foods, but also for their medicinal significance. They are producers of different bioactive compounds (polysaccharides, terpenoids, phenolics, polyketides, alkaloids, lectins, proteins, steroids, etc.) with potential pharmacological effects (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-proliferative, antiviral, hypocholesterolaemic, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, wound-healing, etc.) [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34].
Mushrooms have been used by Eastern and Western civilisations since ancient times (Fig. 11.1). Among agaricomycete fungi medicinal Ganoderma species produce the highest diversity of pharmacologically active compounds [8, 27, 34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49].
The medicinal properties were reported in edible agaricomycete oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus cornucopiae, P. djamor, P. eryngii, P. giganteus, P. ostreatus, P. levis, P. pulmonarius, P. sajor-caju, P. tuber-regium). They are producers of diterpenoid eryngiolide A, polysaccharides and other biomolecules, particularly with hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemic, neurotoxic and cardioprotective effects [5, 8, 9, 50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65].
Highly prized edible ascomycete hypogeal mushrooms are Tuber (the true truffles), Terfezia and Tirmania (the desert truffles) [66], as well as Morchella (true morels) species which develop epigeal ascomata [67,68,69]. These mushrooms are biotechnologically cultivated and have significant economic value due to their excellent gastronomic and medicinal properties [5, 17, 70,71,72,73,74,75].
Currently, the pathways of biosynthesis of bioactive molecules and the related genes are largely understudied. Recent data for identification of genes and gene clusters of bioactive molecules (terpenoids, phenolics, polyketides, cyclic peptides, aegerolysins, lectins, ribosome-inactivating proteins, etc.) in medicinal and edible mushrooms has been reviewed [27, 76]. Genes for pharmacologically active molecules are found in only a restricted number of fungal taxa and species. Some medicinal mushrooms probably have genes for a higher variety of bioactive compounds than species being commonly neglected for exploitation [27, 77,78,79].
Meanwhile, wild and cultivable, edible and medicinal mushrooms may be considered as valuable sources to develop different health-enhancing biotech products, such as pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals [10, 17, 71, 80]. Advances in biology and biotechnological cultivation of selected taxonomic groups of edible and medicinal mushrooms will further assist in the production of novel mushroom-derived biotech products for human welfare.
In this chapter, we have reviewed advancements on the bioactive compounds of wild and cultivated mushrooms, besides the new perspectives for exploiting them to produce new biotech products.
2 Biotechnologically Important Edible and Medicinal Agaricomycete and Ascomycete Mushrooms
In 2004, Boa [81] listed 2327 species of mushroom that were consumed or have medicinal properties. This number was subsequently increased by Li et al. [82] to 2786 but warned that only 2006 could be considered as completely safe and only a few dozen are cultivated commercially.
The most popular are the white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella spp.), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.), enokitake mushroom (Flammulina velutipes), wood ear mushroom (Auricularia spp.) and shiitake (Lentinula edodes) [83,84,85].
Many species are known to produce bioactive metabolites, but the number of species specifically cultivated for their medicinal values is limited to fewer than a dozen species of Ganoderma, Cordyceps militaris, Phellinus igniarius and Tremella fuciformis, which are popular especially in Asian countries [17, Ian Hall and Wei Ping personal communication] (Figs. 11.2 and 11.3a).
A majority of the commercially cultivated mushrooms are saprobic feeding on dead or decaying organic matter. Their cultivation can be achieved by inoculating their mycelium in an appropriate substrate and choosing the correct combination of humidity and temperature. The cultivation of edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms (EEM) is more complicated because most of these fungi need to establish a symbiotic relationship with a suitable host plant to complete their life cycle [87].
Nevertheless, the difficulties and most of the efforts in developing new methods for mushroom cultivation are devoted to EEM for their economic interest. In fact, the most sought-after mushrooms are EEM, like truffles (Tuber spp.), porcini (Boletus edulis s. l.), chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) and the milk-cap fungus (Lactarius deliciosus) [5, 17, 66, 88].
2.1 Nutritional Value of Edible Mushrooms
Edible mushrooms are regarded as an important food resource due to their high-quality protein content [89, 90] and their nutritional properties as excellent sources of vitamins and minerals, for their low-fat content and the large amounts of dietary fibre [17, 71, 91]. Although fresh mushrooms contain about 85–95% moisture content and only 3% of protein (from 19% to 37% of dry weight), they have a complete profile of essential amino acids, which can cover the requirements for adults [89].
Mushrooms can be a substitute for animal proteins, and they are particularly important in undeveloped countries, where meat is a limited resource [92]. Moreover, the use of mushroom protein source is a good solution to health and animal welfare concerns that have arisen through traditional meat production and consumption [93]. They are also an ideal food for those committed to a vegan diet and those who need a source for vitamins D and B12, which are scarce or lacking in plant-based diets [94, 95].
Many edible species contain also bioactive compounds, which have medicinal or cosmetic values (see Parts 3 and 4).
The button mushroom (A. bisporus) and shiitake (L. edodes), which are very popular edible mushrooms, possess nutritional proprieties and pharmacological activities [53, 96, 97]. The multiple health benefits of mushrooms are increasing their consumption per capita which has increased 21-fold over the last 56 years [82].
Morels (Morchella spp.), which are worldwide appreciated for their unique flavour, have been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and Western pharmacopeia for centuries, due to their health-related benefits [98]. Lactarius deliciosus is another excellent culinary mushroom with good nutritional proprieties which was also shown to have various pharmacological activities, including anticancer, antimicrobial, hypolipidaemic, anti-fatigue, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities [99].
Although truffles (Tuber spp.) have proved to have nutritional and medicinal properties [100], their consumption is generally limited because of their prohibitive prices [17]. The most valuable species, the Italian white truffles (Tuber magnatum), the Périgord black truffle (Tuber melanosporum), bianchetto truffle (Tuber borchii) and Burgundy truffle (Tuber aestivum), are generally consumed in a few grams for flavouring other food. Tuber magnatum is the most expensive due to its unique taste and flavour, the limited geographical distribution and cultivation difficulties [101]. In the last season (autumn 2021), for example, its retail price ranged between 4000 and 6000 €/kg in Italy. Its prices are more higher in outside growing countries [17] or in dedicated auctions; in the white truffle auction of Alba, for example, an ascoma weighing 830 g was sold at the incredible price of 214.000 €/kg [88], https://www.rte.ie/news/newslens/2021/1115/1260065-white-truffle-italy/ in November 2021. The other truffles command lower prices which vary between 100 and 2000 €/kg depending on the species, the season, the origin and the size of the ascoma.
2.2 Progress in Biotechnological Cultivation and Usage
2.2.1 Cultivation of Saprobic Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms
The first attempts to cultivate mushrooms date back to the 600 AD when the first wood ear Auricularia mushroom cultivation was reported in China. However, until the advent of modern mushroom cultivation of fungus on the substrates was shear good luck and down to the spontaneous inoculation by spores [102].
Wood was the first substrate used for cultivation of ligninolytic mushrooms like L. edodes and Auricularia spp. Agaricus bisporus was the first mushroom species to be cultivated in compost made of a mixture of substrates like straw, corn cobs, horse and poultry manure, peat moss, gypsum and lime. The origin of biotechnological mushroom cultivation could be associated with the first use of pure cultures in A. bisporus by Constantin and Matruchot in 1894 [85]. Further improvement and development of modern technologies and breeding new strains enhanced mushroom productivity particularly over the past 50 years [103].
In 2020, the cultivated mushroom market was estimated at USD$ 16.7 billion (https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/04/27/2022477/0/en/Global-Mushroom cultivation-Industry-2020-to-2025-Economic-Viability-of-Mushroom-Cultivation-and-Trade-by-Developing-Countries-Presents-Opportunities.html) and is projected to witness significant growth due to the health benefits of mushroom consumption. Moreover, the necessity to find new food resources in order to satisfy the demand of increasing population and of protein from eco-sustainable sources is one of the challenges faced by the cultivation of mushrooms.
The cultivation of saprobic mushroom needs a short time, and the first production begins in a few weeks or maximum several months, depending on the fungal species and the strain, the substrate and climatic conditions [102]. Moreover, mushroom cultivation could utilize different agrowastes as substrates contributing to generating economic development in rural territories. The capability of mushrooms to develop on different wastes makes them the ideal candidates for developing circular economy systems. In this process, the use of the digestate, the material remaining after the anaerobic digestion of a biodegradable feedstock from biogas plants, as substrate for mushroom cultivation is an interesting alternative. Digestate is typically separated mechanically into liquid and solid fractions which are both commonly used as fertilizers [104, 105]. However, there are concerns in their direct use as fertilizer because they are a source of greenhouse gases (N2O and CH4), although less than the untreated biomass [106, 107]. Moreover, the solid fraction of digestate from agricultural feedstocks still contain recalcitrant organic compounds prevalent in the lignocellulosic components, which are not degraded during the anaerobic fermentation but may be an excellent carbon source for ligninolytic mushrooms. Fornito et al. [108] showed that Cyclocybe aegerita, P. cornucopiae and P. ostreatus are able to grow and fructify on corn digestate with a biological efficiency (19%, 80% and 103.3%, respectively) similar to those obtained on wood-straw-based traditional substrates. On the other hand, also the liquid fraction of digestate was successfully used in spruce sawdust fermentation for cultivation of P. ostreatus, P. eryngii and G. lucidum [109]. After mushroom cultivation, the spent substrate is useful as fertilizer due to the presence of nutrients and its protective activity against soil-borne diseases. In fact, it has been shown that the changes in microbial composition during mushroom mycelial growth in the substrate and the subsequent increased abundance of beneficial microbes improve its suppressive capacity against several pathogens [110, 111]. Alternatively, the spent substrate after mushroom lignin degradation can be reused in plants for biogas production or for extraction of bioactive molecules, such as enzymes, or for the extraction of chitin or as feed of animals and in particular invertebrates such as insects or earthworms [108, 112,113,114,115]. Worldwide new species and new varieties of mushrooms are being annually added to meet the increasing demand for new mushroom products.
One of the most recent successfully cultivated mushroom is the morel (Morchella spp.). In recent years, the outdoor cultivation of true morels has been successful and expanded to a large scale in China after more than 100 years of failures [116] (Fig. 11.3b). The species currently cultivated in China are the saprobic species, the black morels in the Elata clade, in particular M. importuna, M. sextelata and M. eximia [117].
Despite morels have been routinely cultivated in ordinary farmland soils, sometimes there are unsuccessful cases for unknown reasons. These failures could be due to unfavourable soil microbiota [117] or for some genetic and biological aspects which remain poorly understood. Several phases of the life cycle of morels have been not completely unravelled, like the mechanisms of fertilization, including the role of microconidia, the morphogenesis of microsclerotia and factors which trigger fruiting [118, 119].
Moreover, some Morchella species in the Esculenta clade establish trophic interactions with the roots of the plants, which at the same time resemble mycorrhizal, saprobic or pathogenic phases; this has not been adequately understood [120, 121]. Fundamental research on morels is obviously necessary to fill the knowledge gaps and for technological progress of Morchella for its artificial cultivation [118].
Cordyceps militaris is a medicinal fungus which in nature infects the larvae of lepidopteran host, and over the past decade it has been cultivated in China on artificial media (Fig. 11.2c, d). Several studies were carried out to improve the cultivation medium in order to increase fruiting body formation and extend its bioactive compounds, especially cordycepin [122, 123]. However, the most important of the entomogenous fungi is Ophiocordyceps sinensis which is collected in the high grassland areas primarily of Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan where it sells at very low prices. Recently the cultivation of O. sinensis fruiting bodies on artificial media on the host caterpillar Thitarodes sp. has been successfully established in laboratories of southern China where environmental conditions are mimicked in the wild Tibetan alpine meadows [124].
Ophiocordyceps robertsii is another but lesser known medicinal endoparasitic fungus of insects. Traditionally it is used by New Zealand Maori to produce a dye to colour the moko (body and face carving). A permanent culture was first developed by Wei-Ping Xiong and Ian Hall in 2019 (personal communication) and is now awaiting further study.
Recently, the submerged cultivation of medicinal mushrooms has shown to be a promising and reproducible alternative for the production of mushroom metabolites [125]. In submerged cultivation the mycelium of mushrooms is grown in a liquid medium in which nutrients are dissolved and oxygen supply is reinforced by agitation [126]. It can be achieved in flasks or bioreactor vessels which are more suitable at industrial levels. Using this technique, physical (temperature, aeration, agitation, etc.) and chemical (pH, medium composition, etc.) factors could be controlled ensuring biomass quality and standardization of metabolite production and opening up the possibility to obtain safely bioactive compounds by the inedible mushrooms [126].
2.2.2 Cultivation of Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms
The edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms (EEM) live in an intimate association with the roots of suitable trees and shrubs in temperate, boreal and, to a lesser extent, tropical forests [127, 128] providing the host plant with soil nutrients and water and receiving in exchange carbon. The lifestyle of EEM complicates the methods for cultivating these fungi and extends the time of the first production.
Among these species, T. melanosporum (the Périgord black truffle) was the first EEM fungus to be successfully cultivated (Fig. 11.3f). Its cultivation was introduced in the early 1800s by the French farmer Joseph Talon. His method was quite simple and consisted of sowing acorns in soils suitable for truffle growth. Truffle cultivation improved considerably over last 70 years when the modern methods of cultivation were introduced. This consisted of inoculating seedlings or cuttings with truffle in greenhouses and then transplanting them in suitable sites. Initially, three different methods of inoculation were proposed: spore inoculum, mother plant technique and mycelial inoculation. Spore inoculum involves inoculating sterile young plants, a few months old, with truffle spores which are obtained by grinding truffles that are fresh, refrigerated or stored in moist sand, dried or frozen [129, 130]. The mother plant technique involves planting seedlings into the rooting zone of a plant known to be mycorrhized with the required truffle and mycelial inoculation using pure culture of Tuber mycelium. The mother plant technique was soon abandoned because of the high risk to spread contaminant ectomycorrhizal fungal species accidentally present on the mother plant. The mycelial inoculation was used only for experimental purposes and to overcome the difficulties in obtaining pure cultures of Tuber mycelium [130]. Thus, spore inoculum has become the method used by all the companies producing Tuber plants because it is simple and effective for most of the species of valuable Tuber spp. However, due to the high cost of Tuber ascomata, batches of truffles, which contain small, broken and often completely rotten ascomata, are often used as inoculum. That makes it very difficult for identification of any ascoma, and those of less valuable Tuber species can escape the control and are included in the inoculum. That increase the risk of contamination of the root of the plants with undesired mycorrhizal species, and, for example, plants which should be mycorrhized with T. melanosporum are instead infected with the similar but less valuable Tuber brumale or with other worthless Tuber spp. Fortunately, in the last 30 years, morphological and molecular methods to identify ascomata and mycorrhizas have been perfected [86, 130, 131]. In France and in some regions of Italy, both the ascomata used as inoculum and the mycorrhizas are routinely checked to avoid the production and commercialization of plants carrying mycorrhizas different from those declared by the nursery [132,133,134].
Since the truffle spores are derived by meiosis of a virtual zygote, they are genetically different and of unknown genotypes [135]. That could be a potential adaptive advantage when the soil and climatic condition of the plantation site are unknown but do not allow a genetic selection of the best fungal genotypes for each specific ecological condition and the possibility to improve the productive performances of truffle orchards. The recent positive results obtained in inoculating plants with mycelial pure culture and the first production obtained by planting seedlings inoculated with different mycelial strains of T. borchii open up the possibility of commercially applying this method [136] (Fig. 11.3d and e). This will allow selecting the strains producing ascoma of best aroma composition or more adaptable to climatic conditions, characters that seem to be genetically controlled [137, 138].
Mycelial inoculation is also applied to produce Lactarius deliciosus mycorrhizal plants. Its cultivation was introduced in New Zealand in the late 1990s; it spread later to Europe and was introduced into China around 2014. The fruiting body production has been estimated to be as high as 1–3 tonnes per hectare in New Zealand [139] (Fig. 11.3c).
3 Mushroom-Derived Bioactive Molecules
3.1 Polysaccharides
The polysaccharides (β-1,3 and β-1,6 glucans) are one of the major bioactive molecules in agaricomycete and ascomycetes mushrooms with significant immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial and other medicinal effects. Fungal polysaccharides (β-glucans) lentinan, krestin, schizophyllan and pleuran with commercial application were extracted from L. edodes, P. ostreatus, Trametes versicolor and Schizophyllum commune [5, 8, 140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150].
The β-glucans and their bioactivity were also reported from other mushrooms, such as A. bisporus, Auricularia auricula-judae, Ganoderma spp. and Suillus granulatus [151, 152]. Ganoderma polysaccharides have particularly been suggested as a healthy dietary food for cancer patients [153].
3.2 Terpenoids and Phenolics
Inedible and edible medicinal mushrooms may be sources of phenolic compounds and derivatives. Fungal phenolics possess anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-mutagenic effects [8, 26, 154,155,156].
Recent studies showed that Agaricus campestris, A. bisporus, B. edulis, C. cibarius, Grifola frondosa, Macrolepiota procera, P. ostreatus, Russula alutacea, R. vesca, S. commune, T. versicolor, Trametes gibbosa and Volvariella volvacea were considered as source of bioactive phenolics (flavonoids, β-carotene, lycopene, coumarins, phenolic acids) with different therapeutic effects [156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164]. Among these, species from order Boletales (Boletopsis leucomelas, Boletus grisea, Paxillus curtisii and P. panuoides) are especially rich in pigments of various phenolic origins for potential medicinal exploitation [165].
A variety of bioactive terpenoids represents another unexploited group of lipid derivatives in mushrooms. The chemical structures of several fungal terpenoids have been determined [166, 167].
Edible and medicinal mushrooms, such as Ganoderma spp., Pleurotus spp., Fomitopsis palustris, Fomitopsis betulina and Tricholoma pardinum, contain lanostane triterpenoids (pardinols A–H and saponaceol B) with antibacterial, antimitotic, antiviral, cytotoxic, immunomodulatory and other therapeutic effects [8, 46, 147, 168,169,170,171,172,173,174].
The sesquiterpenoid eremophilanes with antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, antiviral and cytotoxic effects were detected in Xylaria mushrooms [175], as well as in submerged cultures of Inonotus sp. [176]. The ergostane and lanostane triterpenoids were identified in Antrodia cinnamomea [177]. Cytotoxic sesquiterpenes derived from the fruiting bodies of Russula spp. [166], lanostane triterpenoids from Piptoporus betulinus [178] and hypoglycaemic triterpenes from medicinal mushroom Wolfiporia cocos [179] have also been reported. Bioactive meroterpenoid suillin and related pigments with antimicrobial, anti-mitogenic, antioxidant and apoptosis-inducing effects against human cancer cell lines were detected in Suillus placidus [180] and Suillus bovines [181]. Suillin was suggested as an effective agent to treat liver cancer. A new lipid peroxidation inhibitor bolegrevilol was detected in the edible mushroom Suillus grevillei [182].
3.3 Lipids and Sterols
Evaluation of lipid and sterol content (ergosterol, fungisterol, lanosterol, cholesterol, cerevisterol and derivatives) of mushrooms from Amanita, Boletus, Lactarius, Suillus, Tricholoma, Tuber and other genera showed that they differ in total lipid quantities and fatty acid composition [5, 8, 17, 163, 183]. Among 20 different fatty acids present in mushrooms, the more common are oleic, linoleic and palmitic acids followed by stearic acid. Mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, including oleic and linoleic, are considered as valuable food supplements for human diet and nutrition [6].
Steroids, lanostane and ceramide derivatives were originally isolated and identified from the methanolic extract of agaricomycete species Scleroderma bovista [184]. Among these, the lanostane derivatives showed significant anti-proliferative properties against human cancer cell lines HeLa, A2780, MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7.
3.4 Lectins
Mushrooms possess bioactive proteins, such as lectins, ribosome-inactivating proteins and fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs).
Lectins are non-enzymatic proteins that specifically interact with sugars. They possess immunomodulatory, mitogenic, cytotoxic, antitumor and antimicrobial activities making them as potential therapeutic agents. Different lectins were isolated from fruiting bodies and mycelia of Agaricomycetes genera Amanita, Boletus, Laccaria, Lactarius, Russula and Tricholoma [185, 186]. Lectins with immunomodulating and hypotensive effects were isolated from Tricholoma mognolicum [187].
The potent antitumor and anti-proliferative lectins (homodimeric, 60 kDa) towards human hepatoma HepG2 and human breast cancer MCF-7 cells were isolated from Russula lepida and R. delica [188, 189]. These lectins against murine leukemic L1210 cells from Lactarius flavidulus [190] and haemolytic toxic lectin against murine and human leukemic cell lines were obtained from Amanita virosa [191]. Antiviral and anti-proliferative lectin derived from B. edulis inhibited human viral reverse transcriptase, and the proliferation of several malignant cell lines, by binding the neoplastic cell-specific T-antigen disaccharide Gal β1-3GalNAc, has been reported [189, 192]. A lectin from Xerocomus (= Boletus) spadiceus induced a mitogenic response in murine splenocytes [193], while ingestion of lectins from Boletus venenatus showed fatal toxicity in mice [194]. Lectin TBF-1 specific to the hypogeal ascomata was identified in T. borchii [70].
The galectins are a class of bioactive proteins that bind specifically to β-galactoside sugars and have been described in Agaricomycetes Coprinopsis cinerea and Laccaria amethystina [195, 196].
4 Medicinal Properties of Mushrooms
Mushrooms as medicines were recognized nearly 2000 years ago. They are rich source of pharmaceutical constituents for different exploration potential. Traditional medicine and scientific research data showed that both edible and inedible mushrooms possess promising pharmacological potential (antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, cardio-, hepato- and neuroprotective, cytotoxic, hypotensive, immunomodulatory, etc.) and may be considered sources of myco-pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals or dietary supplements and cosmeceuticals [1, 5, 8, 9, 15, 17, 19, 28, 31,32,33, 140].
Edible medicinal agaricoid Pleurotus mushrooms are mainly known due to their hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemic, neurotoxic and cardioprotective properties [5, 8, 9, 17, 50, 53,54,55,56,57, 59, 60].
The pharmacological potential of inedible bracket fungi, such as Ganoderma spp., T. versicolor, Phellinus linteus, G. frondosa, Fomes fomentarius and Fomitopsis pinicola, could be used to develop health-enhancing functional food products [8, 13, 197,198,199,200]. The extracts from mycelia and ascomata of the most priced medicinal ascomycete mushroom Ophiocordyceps sinensis and C. militaris possess immunomodulatory and cell apoptosis-inducing activities [201, 202].
Edible ascomycete mushrooms, such as morels and truffles, besides their excellent culinary values, have medicinal properties due to bioactive compounds, dietary fibres, vitamins, polysaccharides, proteins and trace elements. The fruiting bodies and mycelium of M. esculenta possess antioxidant activity because of linoleic acid and beta-carotene contents [67]. Polysaccharides isolated from M. esculenta showed anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antimicrobial and wound-healing properties [68, 203]. Many truffles and truffle-like fungi (Picoa spp., Terfezia boudieri, T. claveryi, Tirmania nivea, T. pinoyi, T. melanosporum, Tuber indicum, T. sinense, T. aestivum and T. himalayense) possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-mutagenic, antitumor and neuroprotective properties [5, 72,73,74,75].
4.1 Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activity
The prevention and treatment of bacterial, fungal and viral diseases remain a serious problem in modern medicine. Agaricomycete and ascomycete mushrooms are known as active producers of antimicrobial and antiviral compounds: velutin and flammulin from F. velutipes; ganodermadiol, ganomycin and ganoderiol from G. lucidum; lentinan from L. edodes; schizophyllan from S. commune; krestin from T. versicolor; and others [8, 204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211].
The antimicrobial activities of extracts from A. bisporus and T. gibbosa, against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as phytopathogenic and keratinophilic fungi, have been reported [212]. The bacteriostatic and bacteriocidical effects against Helicobacter pylori bacteria were revealed using ethanolic extracts of A. bisporus, Coprinus comatus, C. militaris, F. velutipes, G. lucidum, G. frondosa, Hericium erinaceus, Hypsizygus marmoreus, Ganoderma applanatum, L. edodes, Ph. igniarius, P. eryngii and P. ostreatus [37, 213, 214].
The aqueous extracts of edible ascomycete mushrooms Picoa juniperi, T. claveryi and T. pinoyi (desert truffles) showed in vitro antibacterial activities against Gram-positive human pathogenic reference strain Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 and Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain ATCC 15442. The acid-soluble protein extracts of T. pinoyi and T. claveryi have minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 50 μg/mL against tested pathogens [215].
The antiviral activities of edible agaricoid mushrooms B. edulis, L. edodes, P. ostreatus and Lignosus rhinocerotis against herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1, human papillomavirus (HPV) and dengue virus type-2 (DENV-2) were reported [209, 216, 217]. Extracts from mycelia of polyporoid species Daedaleopsis confragosa, Datronia mollis, Ischnoderma benzoinum, Laricifomes officinalis, Lenzites betulina, T. gibbosa and T. versicolor showed antiviral activity against influenza A virus (H5N1 and H3N2) [218]. It has been revealed that polysaccharides, glycoproteins, melanins, nucleosides, proteins and terpenoids from several Agaricomycetes exhibit antiviral effects against hepatitis, herpes, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza, West Nile viruses as well as orthopox viruses, including the variola virus [211]. Tested mushrooms were suggested as perspective agents to develop novel antiviral myco-pharmaceuticals.
Mycelia of several polyporoid (Auriporia aurea, F. fomentarius and T. versicolor) and agaricoid (P. ostreatus, P. eryngii, F. velutipes and Lyophyllum shimeji) mushrooms inhibited the reproduction of influenza A (H1N1) and herpes simplex (HSV-2) viruses [207]. Among tested samples T. versicolor 353 strain was detected as a source of low toxicity antiviral agent. The antiviral activity was reported in ascomycete Morchella conica, M. esculenta and T. boudieri [205]. However, antiviral mushroom-derived bioactive molecules and mechanisms of their action remain subjects for further research.
Several bioactive compounds of mushrooms (polysaccharides, proteins, terpenes, melanins, etc.) are exhibiting an antiviral activity with combination of immunomodulatory, immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties which may be safely used in the prevention and treatment of respiratory viral infections [211, 219,220,221].
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a de novo pattern of pneumonia, has caused pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 is associated with several comorbidities; therefore, different preventive and curing therapies should be applied. Medicinal mushrooms may be a good candidate for preventive and therapeutic use against COVID-19 [61, 222]. The combination of immune cell activation with a moderate impact on inflammatory cytokines may be beneficial in patients with COVID-19 [223].
Rahman and coauthors [61] described Reishi or Lingzhi (G. lucidum) as the most suitable anti-COVID agent. Another potential candidate against the SARS-CoV-2 virus may be chaga mushroom (I. obliquus) commonly grown in Asia, Europe and North America. This bracket fungus is characterized by a wide range of antiviral compounds and it is used as a raw material in various therapies. Antiviral melanin from wild and cultivated I. obliquus strain is effective against the pandemic strain of influenza virus A/California/07/09 (H1N1 pdm09) [221, 224]. Other medicinal mushrooms are also promising; for example, cell-based studies show a reduction in the production of proinflammatory cytokines by β-glucan-rich extracts obtained from L. edodes in COVID-19 patients. Fruiting bodies and mycelia of agaricomycete mushrooms Agaricus blazei (AbM), H. erinaceus and G. frondosa have been reported as antiviral, antibacterial, immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory agents and may be suited for treatment of pneumonia caused by COVID-19 infection. A mushroom extract-based biotech product Andosan™ containing extracts from these fungi has shown significant antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects and increased survival in mice with pneumococcal sepsis. Therefore it can be suggested as a prophylactic or therapeutic agent against severe pneumonia that often complicates COVID-19 infection [222]. However, data with chemically well-defined fungal preparations to support COVID-19 patients are necessary to further evaluate for their medicinal properties at certain stages of the disease [223].
4.2 Immunomodulatory and Antitumor
The immunomodulatory activity is the most prominent medicinal property of mushrooms [8, 33, 47, 140, 153, 225,226,227,228]. β-Glucans schizophyllan, lentinan, krestin and grifolan, as well as proteins, glycoproteins and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), have been identified as immunomodulators. They are widely used in the treatment of several types of cancer [8, 33, 206]. Mushroom glucans prevent oncogenesis and exhibit antitumor effects by inducing immune response in the host [142, 144, 229,230,231,232]. They may also modify cell cycle-regulating genes and induce apoptosis [233].
Glucan grifolan or maitake D-fraction isolated from G. frondosa stimulated the production of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (CSF) and recovery of peripheral blood leukocytes [234] and showed anti-metastatic effect [233, 235]. The immunomodulatory, cytotoxic and apoptosis-inducing effects of β-glucans from Ganoderma spp., Inonotus obliquus (Chaga mushroom) and W. cocos are supported by the presence of triterpenoids [227, 236]. The immunomodulatory polysaccharides isolated from Macrocybe titans and Collybia radicata were suggested for further application as food and pharmaceutical agents [228, 237]. A ganoderic acid and FIPs with anti-proliferative and apoptosis-inducing activities have been reported in different Ganoderma mushrooms [47, 238, 239].
Immunomodulatory, anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects were revealed in medicinal mushrooms B. edulis [240], Coriolus (syn. Trametes) versicolor [241], Inonotus hispidus [242], L. edodes [243], P. ostreatus [244] and Taiwanofungus camphoratus [245]. Further myco-pharmacological studies will promote the transfer of mushroom-derived biomolecules to clinically effective therapeutics [8, 140, 246].
4.3 Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory
Edible and medicinal mushrooms are recognized as a natural source of phenolics, polysaccharides and terpenoids with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects [8, 19, 21, 43, 62, 153, 247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260].
The antioxidant activity due to high content in total phenols and flavonoids was revealed in methanolic extracts of 29 wild edible mushrooms. The extracts of Cantharellus cibarius, C. cinereus, Craterellus cornucopioides and Hydnum repandum exhibited high cytotoxicity and induced apoptosis-necrosis in A549 cells. As an active ingredient, anti-proliferative piceatannol was originally reported in tested species [261].
Fermentation broth samples of three Ganoderma spp. contain a large number of phenolic derivatives and flavonoids with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and were suggested as source of antioxidant and antimicrobial agents [141, 251]. It was shown that the treatment with extract of A. brasiliensis improved the antioxidant defences, diminished by rheumatoid arthritis [252].
A significant antioxidant effect was revealed in methanolic extracts from mycelia of Pleurotus spp. The usage of mycelial extracts as dietary supplement can prevent the process of oxidative damage [50, 253].
Antioxidant and anti-proliferative effects were revealed in Boletales (B. edulis) and other edible and medicinal agaricoid mushrooms (A. subrufescens, A. auricular-judae, F. velutipes, Ganoderma capense, H. erinaceus, L. edodes, Pleurotus djamor, S. luteus and W. cocos) [40, 49, 249, 256, 258, 262,263,264].
Antioxidant and anti-aging activities of polysaccharides isolated from ascomycete fungus Cordyceps cicadae have recently been observed [265]. Anti-inflammatory effect of polysaccharides, as well as aqueous, ethanolic and methanolic extracts from Lactarius rufus [266], L. edodes [267], P. giganteus [51] and L. rhinocerotis [268], was revealed.
Further studies are needed to elucidate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of mushrooms and their usage as healthy food biotech products due to the synergistic effects of all the bioactive molecules present (polyphenols, polysaccharides, vitamins, carotenoids and minerals) [144, 155].
4.4 Anti-metabolic Syndrome
The metabolic syndrome (MS) is a pathological condition including hyperglycaemia, hyperlipidaemia, insulin resistance, obesity and hypertension. These symptoms are important signs of type 2 diabetes and increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) [9, 18, 22, 269,270,271].
Currently, the existing drugs such as insulin, statins and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors used for the treatment of MS have limited therapeutic efficacy and several side effects. There are other drugs (e.g., HMG-CoA reductase, aldose reductase and α-glucosidase) which are also used in MS therapy. Nevertheless, considerable effort has been made to develop new preparations and pharmaceuticals to ameliorate the glucose and lipid metabolism without significant side effects.
Mushroom-rich nutrition is regarded as dietary healthy food to prevent and cure MS pathology. Recent studies revealed huge anti-MS potential in A. bisporus, A. brasiliensis, G. lucidum, G. frondosa, H. erinaceous, Ph. linteus and Pleurotus spp. [3, 8, 19, 38, 272,273,274,275,276]. Moreover, the eritadenine extracted from L. edodes has been identified as an anti-atherogenic agent with ACE-inhibitory activity [277]. New bioactive compounds including lanostane triterpenoids isolated from G. lucidum were suggested to control hyperglycaemia and hyperlipidaemia, as well as to cure the MS [35].
The hypolipidaemic and hypoglycaemic properties of several agaricoid and polyporoid species, such as Calocybe indica, P. ostreatus, P. giganteus, V. volvacea and Inocutis levis, have been reported [271, 278,279,280]. However, data concerning the molecular mechanisms of their therapeutic action are still not sufficient [281].
Hypolipidaemic and hypoglycaemic properties of agaricomycete and ascomycete mushrooms allow using them as a healthy food to prevent CVD [9]. Among these species G. frondosa, L. edodes and P. ostreatus are almost ideal for low-calorie diets due to a high content of fibre, proteins and microelements [282, 283].
Recent studies have demonstrated that bioactive molecules (i.e., terpenoids, peptides, isoflavones as biochanin A and formononetin, lanosterone derivative as fomiroid A and lovastatin) derived from Boletus aestivalis, Clitocybe nuda, G. lucidum, G. frondosa, H. marmoreus, L. edodes and Pleurotus spp. can regulate the levels of low, high-density lipoproteins, total cholesterol and fasting triglycerides and prevent the development of arterial hypertension, oxidative stress, diabetes and CVD [8, 9, 284].
4.5 Neuroprotective
The age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) are affecting millions of people worldwide. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation and axonal transport deficits play a significant role in the development of NDD. The general strategies to prevent the progression of NDD are physical activity, stress-free lifestyle and healthy diet, enriched with different natural supplements. Therefore, it is urgent to explore natural neuroprotective agents, including myco-pharmaceuticals and myco-food to prevent and mitigate development and symptoms of age-related NDD [15, 16, 285, 286].
Hericium species [H. coralloides, H. erinaceus, H. flagellum (syn. H. alpestre)] are among the highly praised edible mushrooms, as producers of neuroprotective biomolecules, such as hericerin, hericenones, erinacines and corallocins [16, 274, 287,288,289,290].
Several medicinal mushrooms, such as Antrodia camphorate and G. lucidum, possess neurotrophic effects due to chemical contents of bioactive compounds (alkaloids, fatty acids, lectins, lipids, polysaccharides, phenolics, polyketides, terpenoids, sterols, etc.). They are considered natural agents in the management of different neurodegenerative disorders, including depression, Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s and Parkinson’s diseases [16, 291,292,293,294,295,296].
The role of edible and medicinal agaricomycete and ascomycete mushrooms (A. bisporus, A. brasiliensis, C. militaris, G. lucidum, G. frondosa, H. erinaceus, L. edodes, Lignosus rhinocerus, O. sinensis, P. giganteus, T. versicolor, Termitomyces albuminosus and T. fuciformis) in the treatment of NDD and the study of molecular mechanisms of neuroprotective and cognitive effects have recently been reported [16, 296,297,298,299].
Further efforts are warranted to discover the neuroprotective mechanism of mushroom-derived biomolecules [8, 16, 285, 286, 300].
5 Advances in Production of Mushroom-Derived Biotech Products
A wide spectrum of bioactivities of mushroom-derived compounds could be used to develop health-enhancing biotech products for human and animal use [17, 301, 302]. Mushroom pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals possess different therapeutic effects, such as anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, etc. [8,9,10, 14,15,16, 274, 287, 294, 295, 303,304,305,306].
Several edible and medicinal mushrooms (A. subrufescens, Ganoderma spp., G. frondosa, H. erinaceus, L. edodes, Laetiporus sulphureus, Ph. linteus, P. ostreatus and others) are considered a rich source of innovative biomedical compounds to develop myco-pharmaceuticals. They can be extracted not only from fruiting bodies but also from mycelial biomass and cultural broth [5, 8, 14, 17, 62, 301, 307, 308].
Nutraceutical (“nutrition” and “pharmaceuticals”) is any substance which may be considered a food or part of the food and provides some medical or health-enhancing effects, including prevention and curing of the diseases. Agaricomycete and ascomycete mushrooms (A. bisporus, Auricularia spp., Pleurotus spp., B. edulis, F. velutipes, L. edodes, V. volvacea, M. esculenta, T. borchii, T. melanosporum, etc.) due to their volatile compounds are regarded not only as gourmet food but also nutraceuticals with high nutritional and dietary values for human wellness [5, 17, 283, 295, 310, 312, 321, 328, 330, 338, 341, 343, 344].
The nutraceutical and pharmaceutical potential of mushroom bioactive molecules derived from A. bisporus (lectins), A. auricula-judae (acidic polysaccharides), G. frondosa (grifolan, lectin), Lentinus (= Pleurotus) sajor-caju (lovastatin) and O. sinensis (cordycepin) has been evaluated. Several nutraceutical and pharmaceutical biotech products derived from these fungi were approved for clinical use in many countries [316, 326, 332, 339, 344].
The mushroom nutraceuticals and dietary supplements can be obtained from fruiting bodies, mycelia, sclerotia and spore powder. The supplementation of different types of health food products (dairy beverages, yogurts, bread, pasta, beer) with mushrooms increases their quality and nutritional values [17, 71, 80, 315, 317, 319, 320, 322, 324, 333, 344, 346, 347, 353].
Several white-rot agaricoid, polyporoid, hymenochaetoid and russoloid Agaricomycetes fungi are used in production of beverages, wine, beer, cosmeceuticals, prebiotics, functional foods and nutraceuticals, for stabilisation and delignification of feedstock, as well as in baking [340].
It was showed that polysaccharides isolated from cultivated ascomycete fungus O. sinensis modulate intestinal mucosal immunity and gut microbiota in cyclophosphamide-treated mice [352]. Agaricomycetes species C. versicolor, G. lucidum, G. frondosa, H. erinaceus, I. obliquus and L. edodes have also been reported as prebiotics due to fungal glucans regulating gut microbiota in the host [226, 327, 336, 345].
The vitamin-enriched mushroom dietary food could play an important role in the prevention of chronic diseases [334].
Currently, mycelial cultivation industry is progressing, and the production of mycelium-derived mushroom biotech products is constantly improving [125, 142, 143, 313]. Recent progress in fungal biology and biotechnology, genomics, proteomics and myco-pharmacology has contributed to usage of agaricomycete and ascomycete mushrooms in medicine and food industries [335].
Cosmeceuticals are the products between cosmetics and pharmaceuticals containing bioingredients with anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-pigmentative effects.
Currently, the cosmetic industry is in a constant search for anti-aging (anti-collagenase, anti-elastase, anti-hyaluronidase, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase) biomolecules or extracts. Edible and medicinal mushrooms as unlimited source of bioactive compounds (phenolics, glucans and other polysaccharides, terpenoids) may be considered as valuable sources of cosmetic bioingredients used in formulation of skin and hair care organic cosmeceuticals, nutriceuticals and nutraceuticals [1, 10, 17, 30, 259, 311, 348, 351].
Wild or cultivable mushrooms, such as A. subrufescens, A. bisporus, A. auricula-judae, O. sinensis, Ganoderma lingzhi, G. lucidum, G. frondosa, Hypsizygus ulmarius, I. obliquus, L. edodes, Polyporus and Phellinus species, S. commune, T. versicolor, T. fuciformis and Tuber spp., are also incorporated in the formulation of many cosmetic products [1, 10, 11, 17, 29, 30, 325, 342, 351].
Numerous mushroom-derived cosmeceuticals (applied topically, i.e. creams, lotions and ointments) and nutricosmetics (administered per os) with different formulations are available in the market. Their usage is significantly high due to minimal regulation and safety compared to traditional drugs. The cosmetic brands used in mushroom ingredients are Bliss (Hut.com Ltd, Cheshire, UK), La Roche (F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland), Nu-Derm (Obagi Medical Products Inc., Irvine, CA, USA), SensiClear (Mission Scientific Skincare Inc., Gold River, CA, USA) and others [10, 17, 351].
5.1 Medicinal Mushrooms in Animal Alimentation
Recently, mushrooms have been receiving a great attention as supplement in animal alimentation [314]. Edible and medicinal mushrooms are used as organic food additives for pets for preventing cancer and supporting their optimal immune health [34], https://thenaturalpetdoctor.com/mushrooms-to-naturally-improve-pet-health/). Mushrooms, particularly Ganoderma and Pleurotus species, can be successfully used in poultry diets for improving the performance of broilers [323, 329]. They have different beneficial effects such as immunomodulatory, antibacterial, antiviral and anti-parasitic and can be used as growth promoters or as an alternative to antibiotics [329].
Infectious bursal disease (IBD), also called Gumboro disease, is one of the most widespread immunosuppressive avian diseases, caused by a highly contagious virus. IBD vaccination has been used in the chicken industry worldwide to prevent IBD infection. However, IBD vaccines do not completely protect chicken against infectious diseases due to immunosuppressive effects [349]. Ogbe and collaborators [337] showed that the inclusion of about 0.2% of G. lucidum fruiting bodies to the feed enhances immune response of chicken vaccinated against IBD.
Coccidiosis is a crucial parasitic disease of the poultry industry which causes enormous global economic losses. Due to the increased resistance to the conventional anti-coccidiosis agents, there is a continuous need to find new anti-coccidials [318]. The anti-coccidial activity of aqueous extract of G. applanatum on broiler chicken was recently proved [309].
Least and not last, mushroom dietary supplementation can also improve the poultry meat quality. The inclusion of 10 or 20 g of P. ostreatus/kg in the diet of Japanese quails was effective in delaying the lipid oxidation of breasts and enhancing the colour, pH, water holding capacity, cooking loss weight and texture which are parameters to define meat quality [350].
An indirect use of mushrooms for animal alimentation is to use the spent mushroom substrate as feed sources for insects, as, for example, Tenebrio molitor larvae, which in turn can be used as feed for poultry or fish [331].
6 Conclusions and Future Prospectives
Agaricomycete and ascomycete mushrooms are a source of multifunctional bioactive compounds with broad spectrum of pharmacological activities which can be used to develop commercial biotech products, such as pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals. Edible mushrooms have a great impact on agriculture, environment and economic development in the society.
Advances in fungal biology and biotechnology, edible and medicinal mushroom cultivation industry, as well as myco-pharmacology are addressing to further exploitation of mushroom resources to improve human welfare and promote economic growth. The increased usage of mushrooms and mushroom-derived products can be expected. In exploitation of mushroom resources, it is important to direct the efforts toward their biotechnological cultivation for production of fruiting bodies, mycelia or spores to develop and formulate innovative and standardised mushroom products (nutraceuticals, dietary supplements or cosmeceuticals) and to establish suitable parameters for their quality control.
Further clinical and pharmacokinetic studies of mushroom-derived products and comprehensive assessment of their nutritional values will expand our knowledge for sustainable manufacturing of high-quality standardized biotech products.
References
Alkan S, Uysal A, Kasik G, Vlaisavljevic S, Berežni S et al (2020) Chemical characterization, antioxidant, enzyme inhibition and antimutagenic properties of eight mushroom species: a comparative study. J Fungi 6:166
Azeem U, Hakeem KR, Ali M (eds) (2020) Fungi for Human Health. Current Knowledge and Further Perspectives. Springer Nature, Switzerland, Cham, p 113
Badalian SM, Serrano JJ (1999) Hypoglycemic activity of the medicinal mushroom Hypholoma fasciculare (Fr.) Kumm. Int J Med Mushrooms 1:245–250
Badalyan SM (2003) Antioxidant activity of culinary-medicinal mushroom Flammulina velutipes (Curt.:Fr.) P. Karst. (Agaricomycetideae). Int J Med Mushrooms 5:277–286
Badalyan SM (2012) Medicinal aspects of edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms. In: Zambonelli A, Bonitо G (eds) Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, current knowledge and future prospects, vol 34. Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 317–334
Badalyan SM (2016) Fatty acid composition of different collections of coprinoid mushrooms (Agaricomycetes) and their nutritional and medicinal values. Int J Med Mushrooms 18:883–893
Badalyan SM (2020) Medicinal coprinoid mushrooms (Agaricomycetes) distributed in Armenia (Review). Int J Med Mushrooms 22:257–267
Badalyan SM, Barkhudaryan A, Rapior S (2019) Recent progress in research on the pharmacological potential of mushrooms and prospects for their clinical application. In: Agrawal DC, Dhanasekaran M (eds) Medicinal mushrooms: recent progress in research and development. Springer Nature, Singapore, pp 1–70
Badalyan SM, Barkhudaryan A, Rapior S (2021) The Cardioprotective Properties of Agaricomycetes Mushrooms Growing in the Territory of Armenia (Review). Int J Med Mushrooms 23:21–31
Badalyan SM, Barkhudaryan A, Rapior S (2022) Macrofungi as Cosmeceuticals: a review. Int J Med Mushrooms 24(3) (in press)
Badalyan SM, Borhani A (2019) Medicinal, nutritional and cosmetic values of macrofungi distributed in Mazandaran province of northern Iran (review). Int J Med Mushroom 21:1099–1106
Badalyan SM, Gharibyan NG (2016) Diversity of polypore bracket mushrooms, Polyporales (Agaricomycetes) recorded in Armenia and their medicinal properties. Int J Med Mushrooms 18:347–354
Badalyan SM, Gharibyan NG (2020) Pharmacological properties and resource value of hymenochaetoid fungi (Agaricomycetes) distributed in Armenia: Review. Int J Med Mushrooms 22:1135–1146
Badalyan SM, Rapior S (2020) Perspectives of biomedical application of macrofungi. Curr Trends Biomed Eng Biosci 19:ID556024
Badalyan SM, Rapior S (2021) Agaricomycetes mushrooms (Basidiomycota) as potential neuroprotectants. Ital J Mycol 50:30–43
Badalyan SM, Rapior S (2021) The Neuroprotective Potential of Macrofungi. In: Agrawal D, Dhanаsekaran M (eds) Medicinal Herbs and Fungi – Neurotoxicity vs. Neuroprotection. Springer Nature, Singapore, pp 37–77
Badalyan SM, Zambonelli A (2019) Biotechnological exploitation of macrofungi for the production of food, pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: diversity, ecology and biotechnology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 199–230
De Silva DD, Rapior S, Hyde KD, Bahkali AH (2012) Medicinal mushrooms in prevention and control of diabetes mellitus. Fungal Divers 56:1–29
De Silva DD, Rapior S, Sudarman E, Stadler M, Xu J et al (2013) Bioactive metabolites from macrofungi: ethnopharmacology, biological activities and chemistry. Fungal Divers 62:1–40
De Silva DD, Rapior S, Fons F, Bahkali AH, Hyde KD (2012) Medicinal mushrooms in supportive cancer therapies: an approach to anti-cancer effects and putative mechanisms of action. Fungal Divers 55:1–35
Du B, Zhu F, Xu B (2018) An insight into the anti-inflammatory properties of edible and medicinal mushrooms. J Funct Foods 47:334–342
Friedman M (2016) Mushroom polysaccharides: chemistry and antiobesity, antidiabetes, anticancer, and antibiotic properties in cells, rodents, and humans. Foods 5:80
Grienke U, Zöll M, Peintner U, Rollinger JM (2014) European medicinal polypores – a modern view on traditional uses. J Ethnopharmacol 154:564–583
Hawksworth DL (2001) Mushrooms: the extent of the unexplored potential. Int J Med Mushrooms 3:333–337
Hilszczańska D (2021) Healing Properties of Edible Mushrooms. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Industrial Avenues and Prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 39–51
Khatua S, Paul S, Acharya K (2013) Mushroom as the potential source of new generation of antioxidant – A review. Res J Pharm Technol 6:496–505
Kües U, Badalyan SM (2017) In: Agrawal DC, Tsay HS, Shyur LF, Wu YC, Wang SY (eds) Making use of genomic information to explore the biotechnological potential of medicinal mushrooms. In: Medicinal plants and fungi: recent advances in research and development, Edition: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the World, vol 4. Springer Nature, pp 397–458
Lindequist U (2013) The merit of medicinal mushrooms from a pharmaceutical point of view. Int J Med Mushrooms 15:517–523
Lindequist U (2021) Macrofungi in pharmacy, medicine, cosmetics and nutrition - An appraisal. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmoukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Pharmaceuticals and Cosmeceuticals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 1–6
Mapoung S, Umsumarng S, Semmarath W, Arjsri P, Thippraphan P et al (2021) Skin wound-healing potential of polysaccharides from medicinal mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.). J Fungi 7:247
Sánchez C (2017) Bioactives from mushrooms and their application. In: Puri M (ed) Food bioactives. Springer Nature, pp 23–57
Wasser SP (2014) Medicinal mushroom science: current perspectives, advances, evidences, and challenges. Biom J 37:345–356
Wasser SP (2017) Medicinal mushrooms in human clinical studies. Part I. Anticancer, oncoimmunological, and immunomodulatory activities: a review. Int J Med Mushrooms 19:279–317
Yang YL, Tao QQ, Han JJ, Bao L, Liu HW (2017) Recent advance on bioactive compounds from the edible and medicinal fungi in China. In: Agrawal DC, Tsay HS, Shyur LF, Wu YC, Wang SY (eds) Medicinal plants and fungi: recent advances in research and development, Medicinal and aromatic plants of the world, vol 4, Springer Nature, pp 253–313
Chen B, Tian J, Zhang J, Wang K, Liu L et al (2017) Triterpenes and meroterpenes from Ganoderma lucidum with inhibitory activity against HMGs reductase, aldose reductase and α-glucosidase. Fitoterapia 120:6–16
Hapuarachchi KK, Cheng CR, Wen TC, Jeewon R, Kakumyan P (2017) Mycosphere Essays 20: Therapeutic potential of Ganoderma species: insights into its use as traditional medicine. Mycosphere 8:1653–1694
Klaus A, Kozarski M, Vunduk J, Petrović P, Nikšić M (2016) Antibacterial and antifungal potential of wild Basidiomycete mushroom Ganoderma applanatum. Lek Sirov 36:37–46
Ma HT, Hsieh JF, Chen ST (2015) Anti-diabetic effects of Ganoderma lucidum. Phytochemistry 114:109–113
Ma K, Ren J, Han J, Bao L, Li L et al (2014) Ganoboninketals A − C, antiplasmodial 3,4-seco-27-norlanostane triterpenes from Ganoderma boninense. Pat J Nat Prod 77:1847–1852
Peng X, Li L, Wang X, Zhu G, Li Z et al (2016) Antioxidant farnesylated hydroquinones from Ganoderma capense. Fitoterapia 111:18–23
Peng X, Liu J, Xia J, Wang C, Li X et al (2015) Lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma hainanense J.D. Zhao. Phytochem 114:137–145
Pu DB, Zheng X, Gao JB, Zhang XJ, Qi Y et al (2017) Highly oxygenated lanostane-type triterpenoids and their bioactivity from the fruiting body of Ganoderma gibbosum. Fitoterapia 119:1–7
Saltarelli R, Ceccaroli P, Buffalini M, Vallorani L, Casadei L et al (2015) Biochemical characterization, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of different Ganoderma collections. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 25:16–25
Stojković DS, Barros L, Calhelha RC, Glamočlija J, Ćirić A et al (2014) A detailed comparative study between chemical and bioactive properties of Ganoderma lucidum from different origins. Int J Food Sci Nutr 65:42–47
Taofiq O, Heleno SA, Calhelha RC, Alves MJ, Barros L et al (2017) The potential of Ganoderma lucidum extracts as bioactive ingredients in topical formulations, beyond its nutritional benefits. Food Chem Toxicol 108:139–147
Wang K, Bao L, Xiong W, Ma K, Han J et al (2015) Lanostane triterpenes from the Tibetan medicinal mushroom Ganoderma leucocontextum and their inhibitory effects on HMG-CoA reductase and α-glucosidase. J Nat Prod 78:1977–1989
Xu H, Kong YY, Chen X, Guo MY, Bai XH et al (2016) Recombinant FIP-gat, a fungal immunomodulatory protein from Ganoderma atrum, induces growth inhibition and cell death in breast cancer cells. J Agric Food Chem 64:2690–2698
Zeng P, Guo Z, Zeng X, Hao C, Zhang Y et al (2018) Chemical, biochemical, preclinical and clinical studies of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide as an approved drug for treating myopathy and other diseases in China. J Cell Mol Med:1–20
Panthong S, Boonsathorn N, Chuchawankul S (2016) Antioxidant activity, anti-proliferative activity, and amino acid profiles of ethanolic extracts of edible mushrooms. Genet Mol Res 15(4)
Adebayo EA, Martínez-Carrera D, Morales P, Sobal M, Escudero H et al (2017) Comparative study of antioxidant and antibacterial properties of the edible mushrooms Pleurotus levis, P. ostreatus, P. pulmonarius and P. tuber-regium. Int J Food Sci Technol 53:1316–1330
Baskaran A, Chua KH, Sabaratnam V, Ram MR, Kuppusamy UR (2017) Pleurotus giganteus (Berk. Karun & Hyde), the giant Oyster mushroom inhibits NO production in LPS/H2O2 stimulated RAW 264.7 cells via STAT 3 and COX-2 pathways. BMC Complement Altern Med 17:1–10
Corrêa RC, Brugnari T, Bracht A, Peralta RM, Ferreira IC (2016) Biotechnological, nutritional and therapeutic uses of Pleurotus spp. (Oyster mushroom) related with its chemical composition: a review on the past decade findings. Trends Food Sci Technol 50:103–117
Finimundy TC, Dillon AJ, Henriques JA, Ely MR (2014) A review on general nutritional compounds and pharmacological properties of the Lentinula edodes Mushroom. Food Sci Nutr 5:1095–1105
Finimundy TC, Abreu RM, Bonetto N, Scariot FJ, Dillon AJ et al (2018) Apoptosis induction by Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fr.) Singer extracts on colorectal cancer cell lines. Food Chem Toxicol 112:383–392
Finimundy TC, Barros L, Calhelha RC, Alves MJ, Prieto MA et al (2018) Multifunctions of Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fr.) Singer: a highly nutritious food and a source for bioactive compounds. Food Chem 245:150–158
Fu Z, Liu Y, Zhang Q (2016) A potent pharmacological mushroom: Pleurotus eryngii. Fungal Genom Biol 6:139
Jayasuriya WB, Wanigatunge CA, Fernando GH, Abeytunga DT, Suresh TS (2015) Hypoglycaemic activity of culinary Pleurotus ostreatus and P. cystidiosus mushrooms in healthy volunteers and type 2 diabetic patients on diet control and the possible mechanisms of action. Phytother Res 29:303–309
Ma G, Yang W, Mariga AM, Fang Y, Ma N et al (2014) Purification, characterization and antitumor activity of polysaccharides from Pleurotus eryngii residue. Carbohydr Polym 114:297–305
Masri HJ, Maftoun PM, Abd Malek R, Boumehira AZ, Pareek A et al (2017) The edible mushroom Pleurotus spp.: II. Medicinal values. Int J Biotech Well Indus 6:1–11
Patel Y, Naraian R, Singh VK (2012) Medicinal properties of Pleurotus species (Oyster Mushroom): a review. World J Fungal Plant Biol 3:1–12
Rahman MA, Rahman MS, Bin Bashir NM, Mia R, Hossain A et al (2021) Rationalization of mushroom-based preventive and therapeutic approaches to COVID-19: Review. Int J Med Mushrooms 23:1–11
Souilem F, Fernandes Â, Calhelha RC, Barreira JC, Barros L et al (2017) Wild mushrooms and their mycelia as sources of bioactive compounds: antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic properties. Food Chem 230:40–48
Tao QQ, Ma K, Bao L, Wang K, Han JJ et al (2016) New sesquiterpenoids from the edible mushroom Pleurotus cystidiosus and their inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase and PTP1B. Fitoterapia 111:29–35
Yen MT, Chang YH, Huang SJ, Cheng MC, Mau JL (2018) Extraction of ergothioneine from Pleurotus eryngii and P. citrinopileatus (Agaricomycetes) and preparation of its product. Int J Med Mushrooms 20:381–392
Zhang C, Li S, Zhang J, Hu C, Che G et al (2016) Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities of intracellular polysaccharide from Pleurotus eryngii SI-04. Int J Biol Macromol 91:568–577
Zambonelli A, Bonito GM (2012) Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, current knowledge and future prospects. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p 409
Elmastas M, Turkekul I, Ozturk L, Gulcin I, Isildak O et al (2006) Antioxidant activity of two wild edible mushrooms (Morchella vulgaris and Morchella esculenta) from North Turkey. Comb Chem High Throughput Screen 9:443–448
Heleno SA, Stojković D, Barros L, Glamočlija J, Soković M et al (2013) A comparative study of chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. from Portugal and Serbia. Food Res Int 51:236–243
Ren F, Zhang Y, Yu H, Zhang YA (2020) Ganoderma lucidum cultivation affect microbial community structure of soil, wood segments and tree roots. Sci Rep 10:3435
Cerigini E, Palma F, Buffalini M, Amicucci A, Ceccaroli P et al (2007) Identification of a novel lectin from the Ascomycetes fungus Tuber borchii. Int J Med Mushrooms 9:287
Chang ST, Wasser SP (2012) The role of culinary-medicinal mushrooms on human welfare with a pyramid model for human health. Int J Med Mushrooms 14:95–134
Doðan HH, Aydin S (2013) Determination of antimicrobial effect, antioxidant activity and phenolic contents of desert truffle in Turkey. Afr J Trad Compl Alt Med 10:52–58
Murcia MA, Martinez-Tome M, Jimenez AM, Vera AM, Honrubia M et al (2002) Antioxidant activity of edible fungi (truffles and mushrooms): Losses during industrial processing. J Food Prot 65:1614–1622
Patel S, Rauf A, Khan H, Khalid S, Mubarak MS (2017) Potential health benefits of natural products derived from truffles: A review. Tr Food Sci Technol 70:1–8
Zhao W, Wang XH, Li HM, Wang SH, Chen T et al (2014) Isolation and characterisation of polysaccharides with the antitumor activity from Tuber fruiting bodies and fermentation system. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 98:1991–2002
Stadler M, Hoffmeister D (2015) Fungal natural products – The mushroom perspective. Front Microbiol 6:127
Nielsen JC, Nielsen J (2017) Development of fungal cell factories for the production of secondary metabolites: linking genomics and metabolism. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2:5–12
Yap HY, Chooi YH, Firdaus-Raih M, Fung SY, Ng ST et al (2014) The genome of the tiger milk mushroom, Lignosus rhinocerotis, provides insights into the genetic basis of its medicinal properties. BMC Genomics 15:635
Yap HY, Fung SY, Ng ST, Tan CS, Tan NH (2015) Genome-based proteomic analysis of Lignosus rhinocerotis (Cooke) Ryvarden sclerotium. Int J Med Sci 12:23–31
Chang ST, Buswell JA (1996) Mushroom nutriceuticals. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 12:473–476
Boa ER (2004) Wild edible fungi: A global overview of their use and importance to people. Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations, Rome
Li H, Tian Y, Menolli N Jr, Ye L, Karunarathna SC et al (2021) Reviewing the world’s edible mushroom species: A new evidence-based classification system. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 20:1982–2014
Li M, Hu JL (2014) Study on survival strategies of farmers engage in small-scale household cultivation of edible mushrooms: take shandong Province as an example. J Mod Econ 5:1092–1100
Royse DJ, Baars J, Tan Q (2017) Current overview of mushroom production in the world. In: Diego CZ, Pardo-Giménez AJ (eds) Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Technology and Applications. Wiley-Blackwell, pp 5–13
Vedder PJC, Den Munckhof-Vedder V (2020) Modern mushroom growing 2020. Harvesting:445
Zambonelli A, Iotti M, Boutahir S, Lancellotti E, Perini C et al (2012) Ectomycorrhizal fungal communities of edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms. In: Zambonelli A, Bonito GM (eds) Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, current knowledge and future prospects. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 105–124
Sanmee R, Lumyong P, Dell B, Lumyong S (2010) In vitro cultivation and fruit body formation of the black bolete, Phlebopus portentosus, a popular edible ectomycorrhizal fungus in Thailand. Mycoscience 51:15–22
Zambonelli A, Iotti M, Puliga F, Hall IR (2021) Enhancing white truffle (Tuber magnatum Picco and T. borchii Vittad.) cultivation through biotechnology innovation. In: Al-Khayri JM, Jain SM, Johnson DV (eds) Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Vegetable Crops. Springer, Cham, pp 505–532
Dupont J, Dequin S, Giraud T, Le Tacon F, Marsit S et al (2017) Fungi as a source of food. ASM Journals, Microbiol Spectr 5(3)
González A, Cruz M, Losoya C, Nobre C, Loredo A et al (2020) Edible mushrooms as a novel protein source for functional foods. Food Funct 11:7400–7414
Kumar A, Singh M, Singh G (2013) Effect of different pretreatments on the quality of mushrooms during solar drying. J Food Sci Technol 50:165–170
Fernandes T, Garrine C, Ferrão J, Bell V, Varzakas T (2021) Mushroom nutrition as preventative healthcare in sub-Saharan Africa. Appl Sci 11:4221
He J, Evans NM, Liu H, Shao S (2020) A review of research on plant-based meat alternatives: Driving forces, history, manufacturing, and consumer attitudes. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 19:2639–2656
Larpin C, Wozniak H, Genton L, Serratrice J (2019) Alimentations végétariennes et véganes: quelles conséquences sur la santé ? [Vegetarian and vegan diets and their impact on health]. Rev Med Suisse 15:1849–1853
Watanabe F, Yabuta Y, Bito T, Teng F (2014) Vitamin B12-containing plant food sources for vegetarians. Nutrients 6:1861–1873
Diallo I, Boudard F, Morel S, Vitou M, Guzman C et al (2020) Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of shiitake culinary-medicinal mushroom, Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes), sporophores from various culture conditions. Int J Med Mushrooms 22:535–546
Usman M, Murtaza G, Ditta A (2021) Nutritional, Medicinal, and Cosmetic Value of Bioactive Compounds in Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus): A Review. Appl Sci 11:5943
Tietel Z, Masaphy S (2018) True morels (Morchella)-nutritional and phytochemical composition, health benefits and flavor: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 58:1888–1901
Su S, Ding X, Fu L, Hou Y (2019) Structural characterization and immune regulation of a novel polysaccharide from Maerkang Lactarius deliciosus Gray. Int J Mol Med 44:713–724
Lee H, Nam K, Zahra Z, Farooqi MQU (2020) Potentials of truffles in nutritional and medicinal applications: a review. Fungal Biol Biotechnol 7:9
Bach C, Beacco P, Cammaletti P, Babel-Chen Z, Levesque E et al (2021) First production of Italian white truffle (Tuber magnatum Pico) ascocarps in an orchard outside its natural range distribution in France. Mycorrhiza 31:383–388
Oei P (2016) Mushroom Cultivation, 4th edn. Packhuys Publishers, Amsterdam, p 429
Sánchez C (2004) Modern aspects of mushroom culture technology. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 64:756–762
Holm-Nielsen JB, Al Seadi T, Oleskowicz-Popiel P (2009) The future of anaerobic digestion and biogas utilization. Bioresour Technol 100:5478–5484
Lee M, Steiman M, Angelo S (2021) Biogas digestate as a renewable fertilizer: Effects of digestate application on crop growth and nutrient composition. Renew Agric Food Syst 36:173–181
Czubaszek R, Wysocka-Czubaszek A (2018) Emissions of carbon dioxide and methane from fields fertilized with digestate from an agricultural biogas plant. Int Agrophys 32:29–37
Paolini V, Petracchini F, Segreto M, Tomassetti L, Naja N et al (2018) Environmental impact of biogas: A short review of current knowledge. J. Environ. Sci. Heal.-Part A Toxic/Hazard. Subst Environ Eng 53:899–906
Fornito S, Puliga F, Leonardi P, Di Foggia M, Zambonelli A et al (2020) Degradative ability of mushrooms cultivated on corn silage digestate. Molecules 25(13)
Brezáni A, Svobodova K, Jablonský I, Tlustoš P (2019) Cultivation of medicinal mushrooms on spruce sawdust fermented with a liquid digestate from biogas stations. Int J Med Mushrooms 21:215–223
Wang HW, Xu M, Cai XY, Tian F (2021) Evaluation of soil microbial communities and enzyme activities in cucumber continuous cropping soil treated with spent mushroom (Flammulina velutipes) substrate. J Soils Sediments 21:2938–2951
Wang HW, Xu M, Cai XY, Feng T, Xu WL (2020) Application of spent mushroom substrate suppresses Fusarium wilt in cucumber and alters the composition of the microbial community of the cucumber rhizosphere. Eur J Soil Biol 101:103245
Alhujaily A, Yu H, Zhang X, Ma F (2018) Highly efficient and sustainable spent mushroom waste adsorbent based on surfactant modification for the removal of toxic dyes. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15:1421
Gao X, Tang X, Zhao K, Balan V, Zhu Q (2021) Biogas production from anaerobic co-digestion of spent mushroom substrate with different livestock manure. Energies 14:570
Grimm D, Kuenz A, Rahmann G (2021) Integration of mushroom production into circular food chains. Org Agric 11:309–317
Grujić M, Dojnov B, Potočnik I, Duduk B, Vujčić Z (2015) Spent mushroom compost as substrate for the production of industrially important hydrolytic enzymes by fungi Trichoderma spp. and Aspergillus niger in solid state fermentation. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 104:290–298
Liu Q, Ma H, Zhang Y, Dong C (2018) Artificial cultivation of true morels: current state, issues and perspectives. Crit Rev Biotechnol 38:259–271
Tan H, Liu T, Yu Y, Tang J, Jiang L (2021) Morel production related to soil microbial diversity and evenness. Microbiol Spectr 9:e00229–e00221
Sambyal K, Singh RV (2021) A comprehensive review on Morchella importuna: cultivation aspects, phytochemistry, and other significant applications. Folia Microbiol 66:147–157
Yuan B-H, Li H, Liu L, Du X-H (2021) Successful induction and recognition of conidiation, conidial germination and chlamydospore formation in pure culture of Morchella. Fungal Biol 125:285–293
Ori F, Hall I, Gianchino C, Iotti M, Zambonelli A (2019) Truffles and morels: two different evolutionary strategies of fungal-plant interactions in the Pezizales. In: Varma A, Tripathi S, Prasad R (eds) Plant Microbe Interface. Springer, Cham
Snabl M, Guidori U, Gianchino C, Iotti M, Zambonelli A (2019) Morels on the sand dunes of the Emilia-Romagna coast (Northwestern Adriatic Sea, Italy). Italian J Mycol 48:16–25
Raethong N, Wang H, Nielsen J, Vongsangnak W (2020) Optimizing cultivation of Cordyceps militaris for fast growth and cordycepin overproduction using rational design of synthetic media. Comput Struc Biotechnol J 18:1–8
Wua C-H, Liangb C-H, Liang Z-C (2021) Enhanced production of fruiting bodies and bioactive compounds of Cordyceps militaris with grain substrates and cultivation patterns. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng. (in press)
Li X, Liu Q, Li W, Li Q, Qian Z et al (2021) Breakthrough in the artificial cultivation of Chinese cordyceps on a large-scale and its impact on science, the economy, and industry. Crit Rev Biotechnol 39:181–191
Elisashvili V (2012) Submerged cultivation of medicinal mushrooms: bioprocesses and products (review). Int J Med Mushrooms 14:211–239
Bakratsas G, Polydera A, Katapodis P, Stamatis H (2021) Recent trends in submerged cultivation of mushrooms and their application as a source of nutraceuticals and food additives. Future Foods 4:100086
Corrales A, Henkel TW, Smith ME (2018) Ectomycorrhizal associations in the tropics – biogeography, diversity patterns and ecosystem roles. New Phytol 220:1076–1091
McGuire KL, Allison SD, Fierer N, Treseder KK (2013) Ectomycorrhizal-dominated boreal and tropical forests have distinct fungal communities, but analogous spatial patterns across soil horizons. PLoS One 8:e68278
Hall I, Brown G, Zambonelli A (2007) Taming the Truffle. Lore, and Science of the Ultimate Mushroom, Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, The History, p 304
Iotti M, Piattoni F, Zambonelli A (2012) Techniques for host plant inoculation with truffles and other edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms. In: Zambonelli A, Bonito GM (eds) Edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, current knowledge and future prospects, Soil biology, vol 34. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 145–161
Zambonelli A, Rivetti C, Percurdani R, Ottonello S (2000) TuberKey: a DELTA-based tool for the description and interactive identification of truffles. Mycotaxon 74:57–76
Bonconpagni, S (2018). Disciplinare di produzione delle piante micorizzate con tartufo certificate. https://agricoltura.regione.emilia-romagna.it/fitosanitario/doc/Autorizzazioni/piante-micorrizate/piante-micorrizate
Donnini D, Benucci GMN, Bencivenga M, Baciarelli-Falini L (2014) Quality assessment of truffle-inoculated seedlings in Italy: proposing revised parameters for certification. For Syst 23:385–393
Murat C (2015) Forty years of inoculating seedlings with truffle fungi: past and future perspectives. Mycorrhiza 25:77–81
Selosse MA, Schneider-Maunoury L, Taschen E, Rousset F, Richard F (2017) Black truffle, a hermaphrodite with forced unisexual behavior. Trends Microbiol 25:784–787
Iotti M, Piattoni F, Leonardi P, Hall IR, Zambonelli A (2016) First evidence for truffle production from plants inoculated with mycelial pure cultures. Mycorrhiza 26:793–798
Leonardi P, Iotti M, Zeppa SD, Lancellotti E, Amicucci A et al (2017) Morphological and functional changes in mycelium and mycorrhizas of Tuber borchii due to heat stress. Fungal Ecol 29:20–29
Vahdatzadeh M, Splivallo R (2018) Improving truffle mycelium flavour through strain selection targeting volatiles of the Ehrlich pathway. Sci Rep 8:9304
Wang D, Zhang JL, Wang Y, Zambonelli A, Hall I et al (2021) The cultivation of Lactarius with edible mushrooms. Ital J Mycol 50:63–77
Chaudhuri S, Datta HK (2021) Macrofungal Polysaccharides as Immunoceuticals in Cancer Therapy. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Industrial Avenues and Prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 287–310
Fernandes T, Garrine C, Ferrão J, Bell V, Varzakas T (2015) Chemical features of Ganoderma polysaccharides with antioxidant, antitumor and antimicrobial activities. Phytochemistry 114:38–55
He X, Wang X, Fang J, Chang Y, Ning N et al (2017) Structures, biological activities, and industrial applications of the polysaccharides from Hericium erinaceus (Lion’s mane) mushroom: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 97:228–237
He X, Wang X, Fang J, Chang Y, Ning N et al (2017) Polysaccharides in Grifola frondosa mushroom and their health promoting properties: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 101:910–921
Kozarski MS, Klaus A, Nikšić M, Van Griensven LJ, Vrvić M et al (2014) Polysaccharides of higher fungi: biological role, structure and antioxidative activity. Hem Ind 68:305–320
Meng X, Liang H, Luo L (2016) Antitumor polysaccharides from mushrooms: a review on the structural characteristics, antitumor mechanisms and immunomodulating activities. Carbohydr Res 424:30–41
Wang Q, Wang F, Xu Z, Ding Z (2017) Bioactive mushroom polysaccharides: a review on monosaccharide composition, biosynthesis and regulation. Molecules 22:955
Wang XL, Ding ZY, Zhao Y, Liu GQ, Zhou GY (2017) Efficient accumulation and in vitro antitumor activities of triterpene acids from submerged batch-cultured Lingzhi or Reishi medicinal mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms 19:419–431
Zhang M, Cui SW, Cheung PC, Wang Q (2007) Antitumor polysaccharides from mushrooms: a review on their isolation process, structural characteristics and antitumor activity. Trends Food Sci Technol 18:4–19
Zhang Y, Liu W, Xu C, Huang W, He P (2017) Characterization and antiproliferative effect of novel acid polysaccharides from the spent substrate of Shiitake culinary-medicinal mushroom Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes) cultivation. Int J Med Mushrooms 19:395–403
Zhu F, Du B, Bian Z, Xu B (2015) Beta-glucans from edible and medicinal mushrooms: characteristics, physicochemical and biological activities. J Food Compos Anal 41:165–173
Mironczuk-Chodakowska I, Witkowska AM, Zujko ME, Terlikowska KM (2017) Quantitative evaluation of 1,3-1,6-β-D-glucan contents in wild–growing species of edible Polish mushrooms. Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 68:281–290
Subramaniam S, Raman J, Sabaratnam V, Heng CK, Kuppusamy UR (2017) Functional properties of partially characterized polysaccharide from the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma neo-japonicum (Agaricomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms 19:849–859
Ferreira ICFR, Vaz JA, Vasconcelos MH, Martins A (2010) Compounds from wild mushrooms with antitumor potential. Anti Cancer Agents Med Chem 10:424–436
Islam T, Yu X, Xu B (2016) Phenolic profiles, antioxidant capacities and metal chelating ability of edible mushrooms commonly used in China. LWT Food Sci Technol 72:423–431
Kozarski M, Klaus A, Jakovljevic D, Todorovic N, Vunduk J et al (2015) Antioxidants of edible mushrooms. Molecules 20:19489–19525
Palacios I, Lozano M, Moro C, D’arrigo M, Rostagno MA et al (2011) Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds occurring in edible mushrooms. Food Chem 128:674–678
Acharya K, Bera I, Khatua S, Rai M (2015) Pharmacognostic standardization of Grifola frondosa: a well-studied medicinal mushroom. Pharm Lett 7:72–78
Acharya K, Ghosh S, Kundu I (2016) Pharmacognostic standardization of a well-known edible mushroom, Volvariella volvacea. J App Pharm Sci 6:185–190
Buruleanu LC, Radulescu C, Georgescu AA, Danet FA, Olteanu RL et al (2018) Statistical characterization of the phytochemical characteristics of edible mushroom extracts. Anal Lett 51:1039–1059
Butkhup L, Samappito W, Jorjong S (2018) Evaluation of bioactivities and phenolic contents of wild edible mushrooms from northeastern Thailand. Food Sci Biotechnol 27:193–202
Nowacka N, Nowak R, Drozd M, Olech M, Los R et al (2014) Analysis of phenolic constituents, antiradical and antimicrobial activity of edible mushrooms growing wild in Poland. LWT – Food Sci Technol 59:689–694
Pop RM, Puia IC, Puia A, Chedea VS, Leopold N et al (2018) Characterization of Trametes versicolor: medicinal mushroom with important health benefits. Not Bot Horti Agrobo 46:343–349
Reis FS, Heleno SA, Barros L, Sousa MJ, Martins A et al (2011) Toward the antioxidant and chemical characterization of mycorrhizal mushrooms from Northeast Portugal. J Food Sci 76:824–830
Yao HM, Wang G, Liu YP, Rong MQ, Shen CB et al (2016) Phenolic acids isolated from the fungus Schizophyllum commune exerts analgesic activity by inhibiting voltage-gated sodium channels. Chin J Nat Med 14:661–670
Narsing Rao MP, Xiao M, Li WJ (2017) Fungal and Bacterial Pigments: Secondary Metabolites with Wide Applications. Front Microbiol 8:1113
Clericuzio M, Cassino C, Corana F, Vidari G (2012) Terpenoids from Russula lepida and R. amarissima (Basidiomycota, Russulaceae). Phytochemistry 84:154–159
Dasgupta A, Acharya K (2019) Mushrooms: an emerging resource for therapeutic terpenoids. 3 Biotech 9:369
Castellano G, Torrens F (2015) Information entropy-based classification of triterpenoids and steroids from Ganoderma. Phytochemistry 116:305–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.05.008
Duru ME, Çayan GT (2015) Biologically active terpenoids from mushroom origin: a review. Rec Nat Prod 9:456–483
Hadda M, Djamel C, Akila O (2015) Production and qualitative analysis of triterpenoids and steroids of Ganoderma species harvested from cork oak forest of North-Eastern Algeria. Res J Microbiol 10:366–376
Verekar SA, Gupta MK, Deshmukh SK (2021) Fomitopsis betulina: A Rich Source of Diverse Bioactive Metabolites. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Industrial Avenues and Prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 52–68
Zhang SB, Li ZH, Stadler M, Chen HP, Huang Y et al (2018) Lanostane triterpenoids from Tricholoma pardinum with NO production inhibitory and cytotoxic activities. Phytochemistry 152:105–112
Zhao J, Yang Y, Yu M, Yao K, Luo X et al (2018) Lanostane-type triterpenoid derivatives from the fruiting bodies of cultivated Fomitopsis palustris. Phytochemistry 152:10–21
Zhao ZZ, Chen HP, Huang Y, Li ZH, Zhang L et al (2016) Lanostane triterpenoids from fruiting bodies of Ganoderma leucocontextum. Nat Prod Bioprospect 6:103–109
Yuyama KT, Fortkamp D, Abraham WR (2017) Eremophilane-type sesquiterpenes from fungi and their medicinal potential. Biol Chem 399:13–28
Isaka M, Sappan M, Supothina S, Srichomthong K, Komwijit S et al (2017) Alliacane sesquiterpenoids from submerged cultures of the Basidiomycete Inonotus sp. BCC 22670. Phytochemistry 136:175–181
Qiao X, Wang Q, Ji S, Huang Y, Zhang ZX et al (2015) Metabolites identification and multi-component pharmacokinetics of ergostane and lanostane triterpenoids in the anticancer mushroom Antrodia cinnamomea. J Pharm Biomed Anal 111:266–276
Tohtahon Z, Xue J, Han J, Liu Y, Hua H et al (2017) Cytotoxic lanostane triterpenoids from the fruiting bodies of Piptoporus betulinus. Phytochemistry 143:98–103
Sato M, Tai T, Nunoura Y, Yajima Y, Kawashima S et al (2002) Dehydrotrametenolic acid induces preadipocyte differentiation and sensitizes animal models of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus to insulin. Biol Pharm Bull 25:81–86
Liu FY, Luo KW, Yu ZM, Co NN, Wu SH et al (2009) Suillin from the mushroom Suillus placidus as potent apoptosis inducer in human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Chem Biol Interact 181:168–174
Shirata K, Kato T, Niwano M (1995) Selective suppression of the mitogenic response of murine lymphocytes by suillin from Suillus bovines. Mycologia 87:360–361
Hayashi T, Kanetoshi A, Ikura M, Shirhama H (1989) Bolegrevilol, a new lipid peroxidation inhibitor from the edible mushroom Suillus grevillei. Chem Pharm Bull 37:1424–1425
Ribeiro B, Lopes R, Andrade PB, Seabra RM, Gonçalves RF et al (2008) Comparative study of phytochemicals and antioxidant potential of wild edible mushroom caps and stipes. Food Chem 110:47–56
Kovacs B, Béni Z, Dékány M, Bózsity N, Zupko I et al (2018) Isolation and structure determination of antiproliferative secondary metabolites from the potato earthball mushroom, Scleroderma bovista (Agaricomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms 20:411–418
Pemberton RT (1994) Agglutinins (lectins) from British higher fungi. Mycol Res 98:277–290
Wang HX, Ng TB, Ooi VEC (1998) Lectins from mushrooms – a review. Mycol Res 102:897–906
Wang HX, Ooi VEC, Ng TR, Chiu KW, Chang ST (1996) Hypotensive and vasorelaxing activities of a lectin from the edible mushroom Tricholoma mongolicum. Pharmacol Toxicol 79:318–323
Zhao S, Zhao Y, Li S, Zhao J, Zhang G et al (2010) A novel lectin with highly potent antiproliferative and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activities from the edible wild mushroom Russula delica. Glycoconj J 27:259–265
Zheng S, Li C, Ng TB, Wang HX (2007) A lectin with mitogenic activity from the edible wild mushroom Boletus edulis. Process Biochem 42:1620–1624
Wu Y, Wang H, Ng TB (2011) Purification and characterization of a lectin with antiproliferative activity toward cancer cells from the dried fruit bodies of Lactarius flavidulus. Carbohydr Res 346:2576–2581
Antonyuk VO, Klyuchivska OY, Stoika RS (2010) Cytotoxic proteins of Amanita virosa Secr. mushroom: purification, characteristics and action towards mammalian cells. Toxicon 55:1297–1305
Bovi M, Carrizo ME, Capaldi S, Perduca M, Chiarelli LR et al (2011) Structure of a lectin with antitumoral properties in king bolete (Boletus edulis) mushrooms. Glycobiology 21:1000–1009
Liu Q, Wang H, Ng TB (2004) Isolation and characterization of a novel lectin from the wild mushroom Xerocomus spadiceus. Peptides 25:7–10
Horibe M, Kobayashi Y, Dohra H, Morita T, Murata T et al (2011) Toxic isolectins from the mushroom Boletus venenatus. Phytochemistry 71:648–657
Lyimo B, Yagi F, Minami Y (2011) Primary structure and specificity of a new member of galectin family from the amethyst deceiver mushroom Laccaria amethystina. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 75:62–69
Wälti MA, Walser PJ, Thore S, Grünler A, Bednar M et al (2008) Structural basis for chitotetraose coordination by CGL3, a novel galectin-related protein from Coprinopsis cinerea. J Mol Biol 379:146–159
Chen H, Tian T, Miao H, Zhao YY (2016) Traditional uses, fermentation, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Phellinus linteus: a review. Fitoterapia 113:6–26
Chen JT, Tominaga K, Sato Y, Anzai H, Matsuoka R (2010) Maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa) extract induces ovulation in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome: a possible monotherapy and a combination therapy after failure with first-line clomiphene citrate. J Altern Complement Med 16:1295–1299
Scarpari M, Parroni A, Zaccaria M, Fattorini L, Bello C et al (2016) Trametes versicolor bioactive compounds stimulate Aspergillus flavus antioxidant system and inhibit aflatoxin synthesis. Plant Biosyst 150:653–659
Vetter J (2021) Mushrooms as Functional Foods. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Industrial Avenues and Prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 139–174
Khan M, Tania M, Zhang D, Chen H (2010) Cordyceps mushroom: a potent anticancer nutraceutical. Open Nutraceuticals J 3:179–183
Xu J, Huang Y, Chen XX, Zheng SC, Chen P et al (2016) The mechanisms of pharmacological activities of Ophiocordyceps sinensis fungi. Phytother Res 30:1572–1583
Yang H, Yin T, Zhang S (2015) Isolation, purification, and characterisation of polysaccharides from wide Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. Int J Food Prop 18:1385–1390
Chepkirui C, Yuyama KT, Wanga LA, Decock C, Matasyoh JC et al (2018) Microporenic acids A-G, biofilm inhibitors, and antimicrobial agents from the basidiomycete Microporus species. J Nat Prod 81:778–784
Doğan HH, Karagöz S, Duman R (2018) In vitro evaluation of the antiviral activity of some mushrooms from Turkey. Int J Med Mushrooms 20:201–212
Gargano ML, van Griensven LJ, Isikhuemhen OS, Lindequist U, Venturella G et al (2017) Medicinal mushrooms: valuable biological resources of high exploitation potential. Plant Biol 151:548–565
Krupodorova T, Rybalko S, Barshteyn V (2014) Antiviral activity of Basidiomycete mycelia against influenza type A (serotype H1N1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 in cell culture. Virol Sin 29:284–290
Morris HJ, Beltrán Y, Llauradó G, Batista PL, Perraud-Gaime I et al (2017) Mycelia from Pleurotus sp. (Oyster mushroom): a new wave of antimicrobials, anticancer and antioxidant bio-ingredients. Intl J Phyto Natur Ingrd 4:03
Santoyo S, Ramirez AC, Garcia LA, Reglero G, Soler-rivas C (2012) Antiviral activities of Boletus edulis, Pleurotus ostreatus and Lentinus edodes extracts and polysaccharide fractions against Herpes simplex virus type 1. J Food Nutr Res 51:225–235
Shen HS, Shao S, Chen JC, Zhou T (2017) Antimicrobials from mushrooms for assuring food safety. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 16:316–329
Teplyakova TV, Kosogova TA (2016) Antiviral effect of Agaricomycetes mushrooms (Review). Int J Med Mushrooms 18:375–386
Waithaka PN, Gathuru EM, Githaiga BM, Onkoba KM (2017) Antimicrobial activity of mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and fungal (Trametes gibbosa) extracts from mushrooms and fungi of Egerton Main Campus, Njoro Kenya. J Biomedical Sci 6:20
Owaid MN, Al Saeedi SSS, Ali Abed I, Shahbazi P, Sabaratnam V (2017) Antifungal activities of some Pleurotus species (higher Basidiomycetes). WJST 14:215–224
Shang X, Tan Q, Liu R, Yu K, Li P et al (2013) In vitro anti-Helicobacter pylori effects of medicinal mushroom extracts, with special emphasis on the Lion’s mane mushroom, Hericium erinaceus (Higher Basidiomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms 15:165–174
Schillaci D, Cusimano MG, Cascioferro SM, Di Stefano V, Arizza V et al (2017) Antibacterial activity of desert truffles from Saudi Arabia against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Int J Med Mushrooms 19:121–125
Abdullah N, Haimi MZ, Lau BF, Annuar MS (2013) Domestication of a wild medicinal sclerotial mushroom, Lignosus rhinocerotis (Cooke) Ryvarden. Ind Crop Prod 47:256–261
Ellan K, Sabaratnam V & Thayan R (2013). Antiviral activity and mode of action of mushroom extracts against dengue virus type-2. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever, 21–23 October 2012, Bangkok.
Teplyakova TV, Psurtseva NV, Kosogova TA, Mazurkova NA, Khanin VA et al (2012) Antiviral activity of polyporoid mushrooms (Higher Basidiomycetes) from Altai Mountains (Russia). Int J Med Mushrooms 14:37–45
Mohiuddin AK (2021) Can medical mushrooms fight against Sars-Cov-2/Covid-19? J Internal Med Sci Art 2:23–24
Murphy EJ, Masterson C, Rezoagli E, O’Toole D, Major I et al (2020) β-Glucan extracts from the same edible shiitake mushroom Lentinus edodes produce differential in-vitro immunomodulatory and pulmonary cytoprotective effects - Implications for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) immunotherapies. Sci Total Environ 732:139330
Teplyakova TV, Ilyicheva TN, Kosogova TA, Wasser SP (2021) Medicinal mushrooms against Influenza viruses. Int J Med Mushhrooms 23:1–11
Hetland G, Johnson E, Bernardshaw SV, Grinde B (2021) Can medicinal mushrooms have prophylactic or therapeutic effect against COVID-19 and its pneumonic superinfection and complicating inflammation? Scand J Immunol 93:e12937
Brendler T, Al-Harrasi A, Bauer R, Gafner S, Hardyet ML et al (2021) Botanical drugs and supplements affecting the immune response in the time of COVID-19: Implications for research and clinical practice. Phytother Res 35:3013–3031
Shahzad F, Anderson D, Najafzadeh M (2020) The antiviral, anti-inflammatory effects of natural medicinal herbs and mushrooms and SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nutrients 12:2573
Del Buono A, Bonucci M, Pugliese S, D’orta A, Fioranelli M (2016) Polysaccharide from Lentinus edodes for integrative cancer treatment: immunomodulatory effects on lymphocyte population. WCRJ 3:1–7
Diling C, Chaoqun Z, Jian Y, Jian L, Jiyan S et al (2017) Immunomodulatory activities of a fungal protein extracted from Hericium erinaceus through regulating the gut microbiota. Front Immunol 8:666
Rubel R, Dalla Santa HS, Dos Santos LF, Fernandes LC, Figueiredo BC et al (2018) Immunomodulatory and antitumoral properties of Ganoderma lucidum and Agaricus brasiliensis (Agaricomycetes) medicinal mushrooms. Int J Med Mushrooms 20:393–403
Wang Y, Tian Y, Shao J, Shu X, Jia J et al (2018) Macrophage immunomodulatory activity of the polysaccharide isolated from Collybia radicata mushroom. Int J Biol Macromol 108:300–306
Guggenheim AG, Wright KM, Zwickey HL (2014) Immune modulation from five major mushrooms: application to integrative oncology. Integr Med 13:32–41
Khan MS, Zhang X, You L (2014) Structure and bioactivities of fungal polysaccharides. In: Ramawat K, Mérillon JM (eds) Polysaccharides-Bioactivity and Biotechnology. Springer, Cham, pp 1851–1866
Pandya U, Dhuldhaj U, Sahay NS (2018) Bioactive mushroom polysaccharides as antitumor: an overview. Nat Prod Res 4:1–13
Tsai MY, Hung YC, Chen YH, Chen YH, Huang YC et al (2016) A preliminary randomised controlled study of short-term Antrodia cinnamomea treatment combined with chemotherapy for patients with advanced cancer. BMC Complement Altern Med 16:322
Jiang J, Sliva D (2010) Novel medicinal mushroom blend suppresses growth and invasiveness of human breast cancer cells. Int J Oncol 37:1529–1536
Wesa KM, Cunningham-Rundles S, Klimek VM, Vertosick E, Coleton MI et al (2015) Maitake mushroom extract in myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS): a phase II study. Cancer Immunol Immunother 64:237–247
Alonso EN, Ferronato MJ, Fermento ME, Gandini NA, Romero AL et al (2018) Antitumoral and antimetastatic activity of Maitake D-Fraction in triple-negative breast cancer cells. Oncotarget 9:23396–23412
Rios JL, Andujar I, Recio MC, Giner RM (2012) Lanostanoids from fungi: a group of potential anticancer compounds. J Nat Prod 75:2016–2044
Da Silva MS, Smiderle FR, Biscaia SM, Rosado FR, Trindade ES et al (2018) Fucogalactan from the giant mushroom Macrocybe titans inhibits melanoma cells migration. Carbohydr Polym 190:50–56
Barbieri A, Quagliariello V, Del Vecchio V, Falco M, Luciano A et al (2017) Anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties of Ganoderma lucidum extract effects on melanoma and triple-negative breast cancer treatment. Nutrients 9:210
Welti S, Moreau PA, Azaroual N, Lemoine A, Duhal N et al (2010) Antiproliferative activities of methanolic extracts from a neotropical Ganoderma species (Aphyllophoromycetideae): identification and characterization of a novel ganoderic acid. Int J Med Mushrooms 12:17–31
Lemieszek MK, Nunes FH, Sawa-Wejksza K, Rzeski W (2017) A King Bolete, Boletus edulis (Agaricomycetes), RNA fraction stimulates proliferation and cytotoxicity of natural killer cells against myelogenous leukemia cells. Int J Med Mushrooms 19:347–353
Awadasseid A, Hou J, Gamallat Y, Xueqi S, Eugene KD et al (2017) Purification, characterization, and antitumor activity of a novel glucan from the fruiting bodies of Coriolus versicolor. PLoS One 12:e0171270
Gründemann C, Arnhold M, Meier S, Bäcker C, Garcia-Käufer M et al (2016) Effects of Inonotus hispidus extracts and compounds on human immunocompetent cells. Planta Med 82:1359–1367
Gao Y, Padhiar AA, Wang J, Zhang W, Zhong M et al (2018) Recombinant latcripin 11 of Lentinula edodes C91-3 suppresses the proliferation of various cancer cells. Gene 642:212–219
Ebrahimi A, Atashi A, Soleimani M, Mashhadikhan M, Barahimi A et al (2017) Anti-invasive and antiproliferative effects of Pleurotus ostreatus extract on acute leukemia cell lines. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 29:95–102
Yang H, Sun W, Zhang J, Zhang Y, Yang Y et al (2018) Autophagy inhibition enhances SPCA-1 cell proliferation inhibition induced by By-1 from the stout camphor medicinal mushroom, Taiwanofungus camphoratus (Agaricomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms 20:321–335
Aras A, Khalid S, Jabeen S, Farooqi AA, Xu B (2018) Regulation of cancer cell signaling pathways by mushrooms and their bioactive molecules: overview of the journey from benchtop to clinical trials. Food Chem Toxicol 119:206–214
Anwar H, Hussain G, Mustafa I (2018) Antioxidants from natural sources. In: Shalaby E, Mostafa GM (eds) Antioxidants in foods and its applications. IntechOpen, pp 3–28
Bandara AR, Karunarathna SC, Mortimer PE, Hyde KD, Khan S et al (2017) First successful domestication and determination of nutritional and antioxidant properties of the red ear mushroom Auricularia thailandica (Auriculariales, Basidiomycota). Mycol Prog 16:1029–1039
Carocho M, Ferreira IC, Morales P, Soković M (2018) Antioxidants and pro-oxidants: effects on health and aging. Oxidative Med Cell Longev 2018:ID1472708
Choi YJ, Park IS, Kim MH, Kwon B, Choo YM et al (2019) The medicinal mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) extract has antioxidant activity and promotes procollagen biosynthesis in HaCaT cells. Nat Prod Res 33:3283–3286
Ćilerdžić J, Kosanic M, Stajić M, Vukojević J, Ranković B (2016) Species of genus Ganoderma (Agaricomycetes) fermentation broth: a novel antioxidant and antimicrobial agent. Int J Med Mushrooms 18:397–404
Silva D, de Souza AC, de Almeida GG, Soares AA, de Sá-Nakanishi AB, de Santi-Rampazzo AP et al (2018) The antioxidant action of an aqueous extract of royal sun medicinal mushroom, Agaricus brasiliensis (Agaricomycetes) in rats with adjuvant-induced arthritis. Int J Med Mushrooms 20:101–117
Debnath S, Upadhyay RC, Das P, Saha AK (2017) Antioxidant activities of methanolic extracts from ten Pleurotus species. Int Res J Pharm 8:44–49
Heleno SA, Ferreira RC, Antonio AL, Queiroz MJ, Barros L et al (2015) Nutritional value, bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties of three edible mushrooms from Poland. Food Biosci 11:48–55
Ke L, Chen H (2016) Homogenate extraction of crude polysaccharides from Lentinus edodes and evaluation of the antioxidant activity. Food Sci Technol 36:533–539
Khaskheli AA, Khaskheli SG, Liu Y, Sheikh SA, Wang YF et al (2018) Characterization and antioxidant properties of crude water soluble polysaccharides from three edible mushrooms. J Med Plant Res 12:133–138
Khatun S, Islam A, Cakilcioglu U, Guler P, Chatterjee NC (2015) Nutritional qualities and antioxidant activity of three edible Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.). NJAS - Wageningen J Life Sci 72–73:1–5
Morel S, Arnould S, Vitou M, Boudard F, Guzman C et al (2018) Antiproliferative and antioxidant activities of wild Boletales mushrooms from France. Int J Med Mushrooms 20:13–29
Taofiq O, González-Paramás AM, Martins A, Barreiro MF, Ferreira IC (2016) Mushrooms extracts and compounds in cosmetics, cosmeceuticals and nutricosmetics – A review. Ind Crop Prod 90:38–48
Taofiq O, Heleno SA, Calhelha RC, Alves MJ, Barros L et al (2016) Development of mushroom-based cosmeceutical formulations with anti-inflammatory, anti-tyrosinase, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. Molecules 21:1372
Vasdekis EP, Karkabounas A, Giannakopoulos I (2018) Screening of mushrooms bioactivity: piceatannol was identified as a bioactive ingredient in the order Cantharellales. Eur Food Res Technol 244:861–871
Kushairi N, Phan CW, Sabaratnam V, David P, Naidu M (2019) Lion’s mane mushroom, Hericium erinaceus (Bull.: Fr.) Pers. suppresses H2O2-induced oxidative damage and LPS-induced inflammation in HT22 hippocampal neurons and BV2 microglia. Antioxidants 8:261
Novakovic A, Karaman M, Kaisarevic S, Radusin T (2017) Antioxidant and antiproliferative potential of fruiting bodies of the wild-growing king bolete mushroom, Boletus edulis (Agaricomycetes), from Western Serbia. Int J Med Mushrooms 19:27–34
Sánchez C (2017) Reactive oxygen species and antioxidant properties from mushrooms. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2:13–22
Zhu Y, Yu X, Ge Q, Li J, Wang D et al (2020) Antioxidant and antiaging activities of polysaccharides from Cordyceps cicadae. Int J Biol Macromol 157:394–400
Ruthes AC, Carbonero ER, Córdova MM, Baggio CH, Santos AR et al (2013) Lactarius rufus (1-3)-, (1-6)-β-D-glucans: structure, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. Carbohydr Polym 94:129–136
Ahn H, Jeon E, Kim JC, Kang SG, Yoon SI et al (2017) Lentinan from Shiitake selectively attenuates AIM2 and non-canonical inflammasome activation while inducing pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Sci Rep 7:1314
Nallathamby N, Phan CW, Seow SL, Baskaran A, Lakshmanan H et al (2018) A status review of the bioactive activities of tiger milk mushroom Lignosus rhinocerotis (Cooke) Ryvarden. Front Pharmacol 8:998
Martel J, Ojcius DM, Chang CJ, Lin CS, Lu CC et al (2017) Anti-obesogenic and antidiabetic effects of plants and mushrooms. Nat Rev Endocrinol 13:149–161
Morales D, Piris AJ, Ruiz-Rodriguez A, Prodanov M, Soler-Rivas C (2018) Extraction of bioactive compounds against cardiovascular diseases from Lentinula edodes using a sequential extraction method. Biotechnol Prog 34:746–755
Vitak T, Yurkiv B, Wasser S, Nevo E, Sybirna N (2017) Effect of medicinal mushrooms on blood cells under conditions of diabetes mellitus. World J Diabetes 8:187–201
Hong L, Xun M, Wutong W (2007) Anti-diabetic effect of an alpha-glucan from fruit body of Maitake (Grifola frondosa) on KK-Ay mice. J Pharm Pharmacol 59:575–582
Kim YW, Kim KH, Choi HJ, Lee DS (2005) Anti-diabetic activity of β-glucans and their enzymatically hydrolyzed oligosaccharides from Agaricus blazei. Biotechnol Lett 27:483–487
Thongbai B, Rapior S, Hyde KD, Wittstein K, Stadler M (2015) Hericium erinaceus, an amazing medicinal mushroom. Mycol Prog 14:91
Yamaç M, Kanbak G, Zeytinoglu M, Senturk H, Bayramoglu G et al (2010) Pancreas protective effect of button mushroom Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Imbach (Agaricomycetidae) extract on rats with Streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Int J Med Mushrooms 12:379–389
Yamaç M, Zeytinoglu M, Senturk H, Kartkaya K, Kanbak G et al (2016) Effects of black hoof medicinal mushroom, Phellinus linteus (Agaricomycetes), polysaccharide extract in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Int J Med Mushrooms 18:301–311
Afrin S, Rakib MA, Kim BH, Kim JO, Ha YL (2016) Eritadenine from edible mushrooms inhibits activity of angiotensin converting enzyme in vitro. J Agric Food Chem 64:2263–2268
Ehsanifard Z, Mir-Mohammadrezaei F, Safarzadeh A, Ghobad-Nejhad M (2017) Aqueous extract of Inocutis levis improves insulin resistance and glucose tolerance in high sucrose-fed Wistar rats. J Herbmed Pharmacol 6:160–164
Paravamsivam P, Heng CK, Malek SN, Sabaratnam V, Kuppusamy UR (2016) Giant Oyster mushroom Pleurotus giganteus (Agaricomycetes) enhances adipocyte differentiation and glucose uptake via activation of PPAR and glucose transporters 1 and 4 in 3T3-L1 cells. Int J Med Mushrooms 18:821–831
Singh V, Bedi GK, Shri R (2017) In vitro and in vivo antidiabetic evaluation of selected culinary-medicinal mushrooms (Agaricomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms 19:17–25
Gil-Ramirez A, Morales D, Soler-Rivas C (2017) Molecular actions of hypocholesterolaemic compounds from edible mushrooms. Food Funct 9:53–69
Khatun K, Mahtab H, Khanam PA, Sayeed MA, Khan KA (2007) Oyster mushroom reduced blood glucose and cholesterol in diabetic subjects. Mymensingh Med J 16:94–99
Khatun S, Islam A, Cakilcioglu U, Chatterjee NC (2012) Research on mushroom as a potential source of nutraceuticals: a review on Indian perspective. Am J Experim Agricult 2:47–73
Shibu MA, Agrawal DC, Huang CY (2017) Mushrooms: a Pandora box of cardioprotective phytochemicals. In: Agrawal DC, Tsay HS, Shyur LF, Wu YC, Wang SY (eds) Medicinal plants and fungi: recent advances in research and development, Edition: Medicinal and aromatic plants of the world, vol 4. Springer Nature, pp 337–362
Sabaratnam V, Kah-Hui W, Naidu M, David PR (2013) Neuronal health - can culinary and medicinal mushrooms help? J Tradit Complement Med 3:62–68
Yadav SK, Ir R, Jeewon R, Doble M, Hyde KD et al (2020) A mechanistic review on medicinal mushrooms-derived bioactive compounds: potential mycotherapy candidates for alleviating neurological disorders. Planta Med 86:1–15
Brandalise F, Cesaroni V, Gregori A, Repetti M, Romano C et al (2017) Dietary supplementation of Hericium erinaceus increases mossy fiber-CA3 hippocampal neurotransmission and recognition memory in wild-type mice. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2017:3864340
Chiu CH, Chyau CC, Chen CC, Lee LY, Chen WP et al (2018) Erinacine A-enriched Hericium erinaceus mycelium produces antidepressant-like effects through modulating BDNF/PI3K/Akt/GSK-3 signaling in mice. Int J Mol Sci 19:341
Rupcic Z, Rascher M, Kanaki S, Köster RW, Stadler M et al (2018) Two new cyathane diterpenoids from mycelial cultures of the medicinal mushroom Hericium erinaceus and the rare species, Hericium flagellum. Int J Mol Sci 19:740
Wittstein K, Rascher M, Rupcic Z, Löwen E, Winter B et al (2016) Corallocins A−C, nerve growth and brain-derived neurotrophic factor inducing metabolites from the mushroom Hericium coralloides. J Nat Prod 79:2264–2269
Carhart-Harris RL, Roseman L, Bolstridge M, Demetriou L, Pannekoek JN et al (2017) Psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression: fMRI-measured brain mechanisms. Sci Rep 7:1–11
Donatini B (2011) Hericium erinaceus: properties mostly related to the secretion of neuronal growth factor. Phytothérapie-Heidelberg 9:48–52
Phan CW, David P, Naidu M, Wong KH, Sabaratnam V (2015) Therapeutic potential of culinary-medicinal mushroom for the management of neurodegenerative diseases: diversity, metabolite, and mechanism. Crit Rev Biotechnol 35:355–368
Phan CW, David P, Sabaratnam V (2017) Edible and medicinal mushrooms: emerging brain food for the mitigation of neurodegenerative diseases. J Med Food 20:1–10
Phan CW, Tan EYY, Sabaratnam V (2018) Bioactive molecules in edible and medicinal mushrooms for human wellness. In: Mérillon JM, Ramavath K, Dhanаsekara M (eds) Bioactive molecules in food. Reference series in phytochemistry. Springer, Cham, pp 1–24
Wong KH, Ng CC, Kanagasabapathy G, Yow YY, Sabaratnam V (2017) An overview of culinary and medicinal mushrooms in neurodegeneration and neurotrauma research. Int J Med Mushrooms 19:191–202
Seow SL, Eik LF, Naidu M, David P, Wong KH et al (2015) Lignosus rhinocerotis (Cooke) Ryvarden mimics the neuritogenic activity of nerve growth factor via MEK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway in PC-12 cells. Sci Rep 5:1–13
Seow SL, Naidu M, David P, Wong KH, Sabaratnam V (2013) Potentiation of neuritogenic activity of medicinal mushrooms in rat pheochromocytoma cells. BMC Complement Altern Med 13:157
Tsuk S, Lev YH, Rotstein A, Zeev A, Carasso R et al (2018) Effects of a commercial supplement of Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Ganoderma lucidum on physiological responses to maximal exercise in healthy young participants. Int J Med Mushrooms 20:359–367
Sabaratnam V, Phan CW (2017) Neuroactive components of culinary and medicinal mushrooms with potential to mitigate age-related neurodegenerative diseases. In: Brahmachari G (ed) Discovery and development of neuroprotective agents from natural products, 1st edn. Elsevier, pp 401–413
Gupta S, Summuna B, Gupta M, Annepu SK (2018) Edible mushrooms: cultivation, bioactive molecules, and health benefits. In: Mérillon JM, Ramawat KG (eds) Bioactive molecules in food, Reference Series in Phytochemistry. Springer-Verlag, pp 1–33
Živkovíc J, Ivanov M, Stojkovíc D, Glamǒclija J (2021) Ethnomycological investigation in Serbia: astonishing realm of mycomedicines and mycofood. J Fungi 7:349
Chandrawanshi NK, Tandia DK, Jadhav SK (2017) Nutraceutical properties evaluation of Schizophyllum commune. Indian J Sci Res 13:57–62
Dhakal S, Kushairi N, Phan CW, Adhikari B, Sabaratnam V et al (2019) Dietary polyphenols: a multifactorial strategy to target Alzheimer’s disease. Int J Mol Sci 20:5090
Ho LH, Zulkifli NA, Tan TC (2020) Edible mushroom: nutritional properties, potential nutraceutical values, and its utilization in food product development. An introduction to mushroom. IntechOpen, In
Rossi P, Difrancia R, Quagliariello V, Savino E, Tralongo P et al (2018) B-glucans from Grifola frondosa and Ganoderma lucidum in breast cancer: an example of complementary and integrative medicine. Oncotarget 9:24837–24856
Khatua S, Ghosh S, Acharya K (2017) Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.:Fr.) Murr. as food as medicine. Pharmacogn J 9:1–15
Raman J, Jang KY, Hyun-Jae S, Kong WS, Lakshmanan H (2021) Industrial and biotechnological applications of Pleurotus. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Industrial Avenues and Prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 89–107
Ahad S, Tanveer S, Malik TA (2016) Anticoccidial activity of aqueous extract of a wild mushroom (Ganoderma applanatum) during experimentally induced coccidial infection in broiler chicken. J Parasit Dis 40:408–414
Atila F, Owaid MN, Shariati MA (2017) The nutritional and medical benefits of Agaricus bisporus: a review. J Microbiol Biotechnol Food Sci 7:281–286
Azelee NI, Manas NH, Dailin DJ, Malek R, Moloi N et al (2021) Mushroom Bioactive Ingredients in Cosmetic Industries. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Industrial Avenues and Prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 207–229
Barros L, Cruz T, Baptista P (2008) Wild and commercial mushrooms as source of nutrients and nutraceuticals. Food Chem Toxicol 46:2742–2747
Chen W, Zhao Z, Chen SF, Li YQ (2008) Optimization for the production of exopolysaccharide from Fomes fomentarius in submerged culture and its antitumor effect in vitro. Bioresour Technol 99:3187–3194
Chuang WY, Hsieh YC, Lee TT (2020) The effects of fungal feed additives in animals: a review. Animals (Basel) 10:805
Corrêa RC, Barros L, Fernandes Â, Sokovic M, Bracht A et al (2018) A natural food ingredient based on ergosterol: optimization of the extraction from Agaricus blazei, evaluation of bioactive properties and incorporation in yogurts. Food Funct 9:1465–1474
Dissanayake AA, Zhang CR, Mills GL, Nair MG (2018) Cultivated Maitake mushroom demonstrated functional food quality as determined by in vitro bioassays. J Funct Foods 44:79–85
Dutta S (2013) Role of mushrooms as nutraceutical an overview. Int J Pharm Bio Sci 4:B59–B66
El-Shazly KA, El-Latif AA, Abdo W, El-Morsey A, El-Aziz MI et al (2020) The anticoccidial activity of the fluoroquinolone lomefloxacin against experimental Eimeria tenella infection in broiler chickens. Parasitol Res 119:1955–1968
Farzana T, Mohajan S, Saha T, Hossain MN, Haque MZ (2017) Formulation and nutritional evaluation of a healthy vegetable soup powder supplemented with soy flour, mushroom, and moringa leaf. Food Sci Nutr 5:911–920
Francisco CR, Heleno SA, Fernandes IP, Barreira JC, Calhelha RC et al (2018) Functionalization of yogurts with Agaricus bisporus extracts encapsulated in spray-dried maltodextrin crosslinked with citric acid. Food Chem 15:845–853
Glamočlija J, Soković M (2017) Fungi a source with huge potential for “mushroom pharmaceuticals”. Lek Sirov 37:50–56
Gregori A (2014) Cordycepin production by Cordyceps militaris cultivation on spent brewery grains. ABS 57:45–52
Hassan RA, Shafi ME, Attia KM, Assar MH (2020) Influence of oyster mushroom waste on growth performance, immunity and intestinal morphology compared with antibiotics in broiler chickens. Front Vet Sci 7:33
Heleno SA, Rudke AR, Calhelha RC, Carocho M, Barros L et al (2017) Development of dairy beverages functionalized with pure ergosterol and mycosterol extracts: an alternative to phytosterol-based beverages. Food Funct 8:103
Hyde KD, Bahkali AH, Moslem MA (2010) Fungi.-.an unusual source for cosmetics. Fungal Divers 43:1–9
Jakopovich I (2011) New dietary supplements from medicinal mushrooms: Dr. Myko San-A registration report. Int J Med Mushrooms 13:307–313
Jayachandran M, Xiao J, Xu B (2017) A critical review on health promoting benefits of edible mushrooms through gut microbiota. Int J Mol Sci 18:1934
Kalač P (2016) Edible mushrooms. Academic Press, Amsterdam, Chemical composition and nutritional value
Khan SH, Mukhtar N, Iqbal J (2019) Role of mushroom as dietary supplement on performance of poultry. J Diet Suppl 16:611–624
Kües U, Khonsuntia W, Subba S, Dörnte B (2018) Volatiles in communication of Agaricomycetes. In: Anke T, Schüffler A (eds) Physiology and genetics, The Mycota (A comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research), vol 15. Springer, Cham, pp 149–212
Li TH, Che PF, Zhang CR, Zhang B, Ali A et al (2020) Recycling of spent mushroom substrate: utilization as feed material for the larvae of the yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). PLoS One 15:e0237259
Liu Y, Wang J, Wang W, Zhang H, Zhang X et al (2015) The chemical constituents and pharmacological actions of Cordyceps sinensis. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2015:575063
Lu X, Brennan MA, Serventi L, Liu J, Guan W et al (2018) Addition of mushroom powder to pasta enhances the antioxidant content and modulates the predictive glycaemic response of pasta. Food Chem 264:199–209
Mehrotra A, Calvo MS, Beelman RB, Levy E, Siuty J et al (2014) Bioavailability of vitamin D2 from enriched mushrooms in prediabetic adults: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 68:1154–1160
Niego AG, Rapior S, Thongklang N, Raspé O, Jaidee W et al (2021) Macrofungi as a nutraceutical source: Promising bioactive compounds and market value. J Fungi 7:397
Nowak R, Nowacka-Jechalke N, Juda M, Malm A (2017) The preliminary study of prebiotic potential of Polish wild mushroom polysaccharides: the stimulation effect on Lactobacillus strains growth. Eur J Nutr 57:1511–1521
Ogbe AO, Mgbojikwe LO, Owoade AA, Atawodi SE, Abdu PA (2008) The effect of a wild mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum) supplementation of feed on the immune response of pullet chickens to infectious bursal disease vaccine. Electron J Environ Agric Food Chem 7:2844–2855
Paul N, Slathia PS, Vaid A, Kumar R (2018) Traditional knowledge of Gucchi, Morchella esculenta (Ascomycetes), in Doda district, Jammu and Kashmir. India Int J Med Mushrooms 20:445–450
Prasad S, Rathore H, Sharma S, Yadav AS (2015) Medicinal mushrooms as a source of novel functional food. Int J Food Sci Nutr Diet 04:221–225
Rahi DK, Rahi S, Chaudhary E (2021) White-rot fungi in food and pharmaceutical industries. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in Macrofungi: Industrial Avenues and Prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 175–206
Rapior S, Mauruc MJ, Guinberteau J, Masson CL, Bessière JM (2000) The volatile composition of Gyrophragmium dunalii. Mycologia 92:1043–1046
Razif MF, Shin-Yee, Fung SY (2021) Cosmeceuticals from mushrooms. In: Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) Advances in macrofungi: industrial avenues and prospects. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 230–254
Reis FS, Martins A, Vasconcelos MH, Morales P, Ferreira IC (2017) Functional foods based on extracts or compounds derived from mushrooms. Trends Food Sci Technol 66:48–62
Sękara A, Kalisz A, Grabowska A, Siwulski M (2015) Auricularia spp.-mushrooms as novel food and therapeutic agents-a review. Sydowia 67:1–10
Singdevsachan SK, Auroshree P, Mishra J, Baliyarsingh B, Tayung K et al (2016) Mushroom polysaccharides as potential prebiotics with their antitumor and immunomodulating properties: a review. Bioact Carbohydr Dietary Fibre 7:1–14
Singh J, Sindhu SC, Sindhu A, Yadav A (2016) Development and evaluation of value added biscuits from dehydrated Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) mushroom. Int J Curr Res 8:27155–27159
Sknepnek A, Pantić M, Matijašević D, Miletić D, Lević S et al (2018) Novel kombucha beverage from Lingzhi or Reishi medicinal mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum, with antibacterial and antioxidant effects. Int J Med Mushrooms 20:243–258
Taofiq O, Martins A, Barreiro MF, Ferreira IC (2016) Anti-inflammatory potential of mushroom extracts and isolated metabolites. Trends Food Sci Technol 50:193–210
Thomrongsuwannakij T, Charoenvisal N, Chansiripornchai N (2021) Comparison of two attenuated infectious bursal disease vaccine strains focused on safety and antibody response in commercial broilers. Vet World 14:70–77
Vargas-Sánchez RD, Torrescano-Urrutia GR, Ibarra-Arias FJ, Portillo-Loera JJ, Ríos-Rincón FG et al (2018) Effect of dietary supplementation with Pleurotus ostreatus on growth performance and meat quality of Japanese quail. Livest Sci 207:117–125
Wu Y, Choi MH, Li J, Yang H, Shin HJ (2016) Mushroom cosmetics: the present and future. Cosmetics 3:22
Ying M, Yu Q, Zheng B, Wang H, Wang J et al (2020) Cultured Cordyceps sinensis polysaccharides modulate intestinal mucosal immunity and gut microbiota in cyclophosphamide-treated mice. Carbohydr Polym 235:115957
Yuan B, Zhao L, Yang W, McClements DJ, Hu Q (2017) Enrichment of bread with nutraceutical-rich mushrooms: impact of Auricularia auricula (mushroom) flour upon quality attributes of wheat dough and bread. J Food Sci 82:2041–2050
Acknowledgements
This chapter arises from a long-standing cooperation between the two authors on fungal biology and biotechnology research of Basidiomycota and Ascomycota mushrooms and their nutritional and medicinal properties supported by bilateral collaboration between Yerevan State University, Armenia, and University of Bologna, Italy. The authors are particularly grateful to Ian Hall, for editing the manuscript and providing photos of mushrooms, as well as Federico Puliga, Bologna University, for the photo of G. lucidum.
Thanks to our colleagues and collaborators who contributed to the development of fungal biology and biotechnology research, particularly cultivation and exploitation of mushrooms as sources of food, pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals.
The work was partially supported by the Science Committee of Republic of Armenia in the frames of the thematic research project № 21T-1F228.
Conflict of Interest
The authors do not have any conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Badalyan, S.M., Zambonelli, A. (2023). The Potential of Mushrooms in Developing Healthy Food and Biotech Products. In: Satyanarayana, T., Deshmukh, S.K. (eds) Fungi and Fungal Products in Human Welfare and Biotechnology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8853-0_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8853-0_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-19-8852-3
Online ISBN: 978-981-19-8853-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)