Keywords

1 Introduction

As researchers with vested interest in Asian tourism, we have witnessed an increased emphasis on Asian destinations in academic research, keynote deliveries, conference tracks, and industry events. These are in line with the growth of Asian tourism destinations over the last 10 years. According to UNWTO, Asia and the Pacific as a whole, was the fastest-growing region for international tourist arrivals with a 9% increase in 2016 compared with 8% for Africa, 3% for Americas, and 2% for Europe. In 2017, travel and tourism’s contribution to employment and GDP was the highest in Asia, compared to other parts of the world (World Travel and Tourism Council 2017). The Asian region includes some of the world’s most important tourist source markets, including China. As the world’s top spender in tourism since 2012, China recorded a 12% growth in expenditure in 2016 (UNWTO 2017). Asian destinations also receive more tourists from their neighboring Asian countries. Vietnam, for example, saw a staggering 64% increase in Chinese tourist arrivals in 2015 (Vietnam Tourism 2016). Destination infrastructure has supported this boom in tourism, with six out of the ten best airports in the world in 2017 being located in Asia (Skytrax 2017).

Tourism growth in Asia has resulted in many academic publications on Asian destinations. In general, tourism scholars recognize the philosophical difference between the East and the West and concur that it is not appropriate to assume homogeneity in cultural values and the consequent tourism practices across Asian markets and destinations. However, the speed at which academic articles publish alongside development of Asian tourism destinations also mean that existing academic knowledge on managing Asian tourism destinations is highly fragmented. Scholars have specifically called for additional contributions to both the theory and practice of tourism within the Asia-Pacific region (Tolkach et al. 2016).

This book is timely in that it allows us to take stock and evaluate destinations within Southeast Asia and the wider Asia-Pacific region. A cursory examination of the literature reveals that destination literature can be divided into three main categories: Planning, Management, and Marketing; and as such, we have organized this book under these three core categories. Given the evident recent growth of Asian tourism, it comes as no surprise that tourism development is a common theme across planning, management, and marketing. The chapter contributions highlight knowledge spectrum under these core themes on Asian tourism destinations.

2 Destination Planning

Destination planning is not a new concept and has been well-researched over time in various contexts. Destination planning refers to how a destination, be it a state, region, town, or city, is planned in relation to its tourism offering and what experiences, images, or emotions that the consumer recalls when thinking of that destination (Simeon 2006). Destination planning has been investigated in Asian settings; yet given the dramatic growth in Asian tourism industry over the last decade, academic research has not provided a comprehensive understanding of best practice destination planning strategies. Of the literature on destination planning in Asia, majority has focused on China and has also sporadically covered destinations like Thailand (Theerapappisit 2009; Chaisawat 2006) and Taiwan (Liu et al. 2016; Jang and Chen 2008). Within these regions, scholars have discussed planning issues related to sustainability (Catibog-Sinha and Wen 2008; Luo and Deng 2008), tourism development (Wang and Wall 2007; Dredge 2004; Lai et al. 2006), policy (Yang et al. 2008; Dredge 2004), tourist behavior (Chen et al. 2009), and local engagement and participation (Rasoolimanesh and Jafaar 2017; Lagarense and Walansendow 2015; Theerapappisit 2009; Lovelock 2003). Tourism development as such seems to be an integrated and integral part of tourism planning and has thus far been researched most commonly in terms of the development of tourism policy for effective future planning.

Globally, government policy is considered a crucial factor for sustained development of tourism, and this holds true within Asian destinations. In fact, the need for solid tourism policies within the Asia Pacific is significant, as the tourism growth within the region calls for additional policies to support tourism development. Policy is considered a core aspect of tourism planning, and in instances where tourism policy is not effectively planned and enacted due to political instability (Issa and Altinay 2006) or failure from institutions responsible for tourism policy planning (Alipour and Kilic 2005), tourism sector cannot function at its true potential. Tourism policy planning is thus regarded as a necessity for the current and future success of tourism industries at a global level. Tourism policy and policy development are often put aside as recommendations both for future investigations to expand upon and for government and policy makers within the Asia-Pacific region to action upon. Given that policy making is primarily recognized as a responsibility for the government, the weak involvement of tourism stakeholders in policy decisions has impelled academics to call governments to actively engage relevant stakeholders in tourism decision-making processes.

Stakeholder participation is important not just for successful tourism policy but also for destination planning as a whole. Positive relationships with local communities of tourism destinations are important as participation and engagement from the local community can have significant impacts on the development of the tourism industry (Hampton 2005; Adeyinka-Ojo et al. 2014). As key stakeholders, local community members operate a majority of tourism businesses within the destination and are therefore key players in circulating tourist dollar and generating economic benefit for the region (Hampton 2005; Chaisawat 2006). Given their evident involvement in tourism operation, community members clearly possess a unique insight into tourist behaviors, attitudes, desires, and trends; and their subsequent perceptions on tourism products and services are critical in destination planning. In order to ensure stakeholder opinion is captured, communication as a tool for soliciting stakeholder opinions is recommended (Chaisawat 2006; Dredge 2004; Yang et al. 2008). Effectively linking resident opinion to strategic tourism planning will not only increase the potential of destination success but also ensure continued local community satisfaction and support for the tourism industry (Chaisawat 2006), which inevitably drives further development. Communication is an element present in most studies which include stakeholder attitude toward tourism development. In fact, local perceptions and involvement should essentially be required in all tourism destination planning as an insurance on the suitability of development plans. Stakeholder involvement has also been explored from a sustainability point of view, where residents’ positive and negative perceptions, engagement, and support for sustainable tourism practices are shown to have a significant impact on sustainable tourism development (Rasoolimanesh and Jafaar 2017).

In addition, tourists as stakeholders themselves associate a sense of novelty, excitement, and other positive emotions with a destination. These positive emotions are found to create higher tourist satisfactions and increase their overall outlook on tourism sustainability (Liu et al. 2016). The opinions, perceptions, and participation of both residents and tourists in tourism planning activities can have a positive impact on the success of a destination. Hence, it is important that academic focus expands to deliver strategies for effective stakeholder consultation and implementation of stakeholder recommendations by governing bodies.

Further exploration of literature on sustainable tourism indicates that tourism sustainability has been investigated from an economic, environmental, and/or social perspective. Within the literature of destination planning in the Asia-Pacific region, environmental sustainability was the most researched topic. Ecotourism, nature-based tourism, and green tourism have attracted increasing interest within destination planning literature over the last decade alongside consumer awareness of green practices, particularly within the hotel industry. Tourism within the Asian context is not different, and destination planning research has endeavored to assess ecotourism and nature tourism trends (Yang et al. 2008). Strategies for destination planning are emphasized as ways in which destination management organizations and tourism stakeholders should consider environmental impacts of tourism to ensure the longevity of destination success. While there is substantial literature about tourism sustainability within Asia, industry players do not seem to be sufficiently engaged in sustainable practices and initiatives (Tolkach et al. 2016). Given stakeholders’ desire to be involved in tourism planning, it seems odd that they have a weak engagement with sustainable tourism practices. Overcoming obstacles to participation in sustainable practices is an area that requires further investigation.

Contributing to research on destination planning within an Asian context, Part I of this book contains four chapters on planning Asian destinations. Although commonality of planning exists between the four chapters, each chapter investigates destination planning with a unique lens. Chapter 2 presents tourism policy within the Philippines, providing an analytical view of political power and oppression which hinder implementation of policy. Chapter 3 further emphasizes the importance of stakeholder participation in destination planning, by utilizing a “circuit approach” to tourism planning within the Philippines. This chapter resolves that stakeholder involvement, both from local governments and from within the private sector, needs to be active within the region to effectively utilize tourism circuit planning. Sustainability was an evident theme within the literature yet still not widely explored within the Asian context, and Chaps. 4 and 5 contribute to this gap in knowledge by examining destination planning in relation to sustainable practices in Asia. More specifically, Chap. 4 investigates nature-based tourism and the balance of planning with sustainability in Hong Kong, an urban center, and Chap. 5 uses sustainability as a tool to assess the longevity of tourism development in the Maldives.

3 Destination Management

Destination management is an activity that is critical to a destination’s success. While destination management is required in all stages of a destination’s life cycle, it is particularly essential to preventing the destination going into decline (Kozak and Martin 2012). Literature on destination management is extensive. Albeit relatively limited when compared to that of its Western counterpart, within an Asian context, topics under this theme explore development, stakeholder perception, involvement, and sustainability – the same topics that were illustrated within destination planning literature. Relevant research in Asia is heavily concentrated on China, with articles contributing knowledge in the areas of stakeholder satisfaction (Vong et al. 2016), development (Dai et al. 2012), and tourist consumer behaviors (Kim et al. 2011). The second most researched location is Taiwan, with articles focusing on the development of destination image (Ku and Mak 2017; Lee 2014). Studies were also produced in Cambodia (Dwyer and Thomas 2012; Chen et al. 2008), Hong Kong (Huang and Hsu 2005; McKercher and Ho 2006), Korea (Lee and Weaver 2014; Kang et al. 2012), Mongolia (Yu and Goulden 2006), and Nepal (Musa et al. 2004). As mentioned, much like the literature on destination planning within Asia, tourism development was a recognizable theme within destination management research as well. Managing tourist destinations and their development is important, because without effective management and development of tourism experiences, a tourist destination will struggle to remain competitive throughout all stages of its life cycle (Kozak and Martin 2012). A destination can possess strong physical attributes and appear desirable to tourist markets, but if the tourist experience and experiential values of the destination fail to provide adequate value to tourists, its capability as a tourism destination is questionable. The management of and development for tourism destinations should consider tourist offerings in terms of their physical, cultural, and experiential values that can be created by tourism organizations to enhance the overall enjoyment of that destination (McKercher and Ho 2006).

Gaining a clear understanding of destination image from the perspective of tourists and residents is essential in ensuring success in tourism development in Asian destinations (Ku and Mak 2017). As such, within current research on destination management, stakeholder involvement and participation is again a common theme. Reasons why a tourist chooses to travel to a particular destination are identified as shopping, spending time with family and friends, or experiencing culture and alternative lifestyles, relaxation, or education purposes. The goal for destination managers and marketers is to identify or even create this need and work to mold a destination image that aligns with the desires and expectations of the tourists. In a study by Ku and Mak (2017), both Taiwanese residents and tourists, as stakeholders, expressed how important they felt it was for destination management organizations to consider motivations and opinions of tourists and residents before initiating future tourism development, to ensure stakeholder satisfaction. Literature within destination management in Asia explains the increased likeliness of local community supporting the development of tourism, when residents within the community feel positively about their region and its brand (Vong et al. 2016).

Similar to the destination planning literature, sustainability was also a common thematic focus within the destination management literature in Asia. With ecotourism and nature-based tourism on the rise in the region, these tourism sectors were analyzed in terms of their experienced growth, the challenges that are faced, and their subsequent successes as these sectors continue to develop into the future. In an Asian context, consumer behaviors were investigated from a sustainability point of view. Literature revealed that tourists’ positive emotions and attitudes toward destinations can have subsequent positive effects on their willingness to participate in environmentally responsible behaviors when visiting a destination (Cheng et al. 2013; Laroche et al. 2001; Zsóka et al. 2013; Cheng and Wu 2015 in Oviedo-García et al. 2017). In fact, tourists are far more likely to engage in sustainable tourism practices and environmentally conscious behaviors when they feel favorably about that particular destination (Cheng et al. 2013; Cheng and Wu 2015). As such, benefits of creating positive destination image for consumers extend beyond attracting visitation, to encouraging environmentally positive behaviors from tourists and a reduced environmental footprint, preserving the destination for future tourists.

The long-term competitiveness and sustainability of a destination is also reliant upon quality service and tourist experiences, a prominent topic in global tourism and similarly within research on Asian destinations. Effort was made to understand service quality and tourist satisfaction in medical tourism in Thailand (Abd Mutalib et al. 2017), quality of tour guiding in Hong Kong (Chan et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2016), endangered wildlife experience in Mainland China (Cong et al. 2014), and Chinese package tourists to Taiwan (Chang 2014), among others. Studies within the Asian context also discussed issues related to unethical practice of tourism businesses, primarily concerning Chinese tourism in places such as Mainland China (e.g., Kwek et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2016) and Hong Kong (Mak et al. 2011). As suggested, unethical practice is often associated with all-inclusive package tourism, the market share of which, according to Chen et al. (2016), is negatively associated with overall tourist satisfaction with Hong Kong based on data from 1993 to 2013.

Part II introduces four chapters that contribute additional knowledge to the management of Asian tourism destinations. Chapter 6 investigates the management of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Vietnam, with a focus on visitor perceptions. This chapter adds to the current literature on creating a strong value proposition for tourists to enhance future tourism development opportunities, as explored in the preceding literature review. Development is also the focus of Chap. 7, which takes a new approach to looking at cross-border tourism in Thailand by identifying the challenges the destination faces in its tourism development and key issues facing tourism planning. The developmental challenges hindering tourism development that are explored within the chapter include weak market attractiveness, lack of direction for planning activities, powerful opinion from vested parties, and complexities when dealing with stakeholders. The importance of stakeholders within tourism management and development is again highlighted in Chap. 8 with an investigation of stakeholder involvement within community-based tourism in Cambodia. Chapter 8 also touches on sustainable tourism by analyzing the sustainability initiatives set in place for the long-term sustainability of community-based tourism in Cambodia. Chapter 9 adds new context to sustainability in destination management, by looking at the transformation of Manali, a rural farming settlement in the Indian Himalayas, into an urban destination and reporting on the environmental damages incurred due to a lack of sustainable tourism policy. Chapter 10 also discusses tourism policy and contributes to literature on sustainable tourism within the context of World Heritage sites, analyzing their rapid tourism growth within Southeast Asia and aligning the subsequent management and development with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Chapter 11 takes a different perspective to investigate the relationships among tourism, millennials, and the sharing economy by analyzing the project “Sharing City, Seoul,” launched by the city to boost social innovation and promote local sharing entrepreneurship.

4 Destination Marketing

Part III explores destination marketing within Asia Pacific. Destination marketing techniques have expanded exponentially and so has tourism within Asia. Therefore it makes sense that academia has responded to this demand by beginning to produce topical research on destination marketing by Asian destinations. Destination marketing literature on a broad scale has expanded immensely over the past few years as destinations look for unique and innovative ways to market their destinations that allow them to differentiate from their competitors. Travelers are becoming smart consumers, actively gathering and disseminating information about tourist destinations. With the proliferation of social media comes increased transparency of destinations as users can post photos, opinions, and in-depth accounts of their tourism experiences (Wang 2016). Tourism marketers have been increasingly creating stronger presences on these online platforms and utilizing more organic marketing strategies by creating spaces where they can actively engage with consumers on a more personal level.

The geographical scope of destination marketing literature was broader than other categories of tourism research; and many studies did not focus on a specific country but on regions and cities within Asian countries (Pai et al. 2014; Horng and Tsai 2010; Mena et al. 2004). Some studies were conducted within a specific geographic region, and of these Korea was the most dominant (Lee et al. 2014; Han and Lee 2008; Chan 2007). Other Asian destinations include Macau (Park et al. 2015; Qiu et al. 2015; Choi et al. 2007), Malaysia (Tang 2011; Jaafar et al. 2012), Singapore (Wang et al. 2015; Tsai 2012), China (Hsu and Song 2012; Tse and Zhang 2013), Beijing (Han et al. 2017), Hong Kong (Okumus et al. 2007), India (Mishra and Bansal 2017), Japan (Lim et al. 2008), Taipei (Pan et al. 2014), Taiwan (Yan et al. 2007), and Thailand (McDowall and Wang 2009).

In line with research on destination planning and destination management, development is also a recurring theme within destination marketing literature. Research explores brand development and/or tourism product development (Lin and Zins 2016; Leung et al. 2015; Qiu et al. 2015; Pai et al. 2014; Semone and Kozak 2012; Tsai 2012; McDowall and Wang 2009; Lim et al. 2008; Han and Lee 2008; Chan 2007; Mena et al. 2004; Prideaux 1997) and links with tourism planning; and of these, brand development is the most common way that destination marketing research discusses development. Given the growth of Asian tourism over the last 10 years, it also makes sense that branding is an increasingly prominent topic within Asian destination marketing literature, as regions enjoying newly found tourism revenues need to work to establish themselves as tourism destination brands. Creating a positive destination image in the consumer’s mind is a fundamental step in developing a tourism brand and stimulating tourism (Song et al. 2017a, b; Tsai 2012; Avraham and Ketter 2017); consequently consumer behaviors, preferences, and revisit intentions have attracted much research interest within current literature. It is important for tourism marketers and organizations to understand their market, so that they are better able to create a destination brand that aligns with the needs and desires of that market, encouraging visitation to the destination.

Social media has revolutionized the way that Asian destinations are being portrayed and perceived yet remains under researched in tourism (Shakeela and Weaver 2016). Destination marketing research has focused on online marketing via websites, blogs, microblogs, and social media platforms, which have become increasingly powerful in shaping traveler perceptions and attitudes. Destinations use these platforms and tools to create, manage, and communicate its brand image because they are easy to use and access and allow instant marketing content to be received by consumers (Wang 2016). Different from traditional marketing, the responsibility for branding content creation and communication is no longer solely on destination marketing organizations. Rather, this responsibility lies with stakeholders within the industry, including both tourism business operators and tourists (Choi et al. 2007; Morgan et al. 2003; Sartori et al. 2012). In fact, destination images projected online via private websites, blogs, and social media pages can have a significant impact in the overall branding of an Asian destination and the subsequent desire for visitation that it attracts (in this case, Macao) (Choi et al. 2007). Online media has increasingly allowed consumers to create both external and internal perceptions about a destination from the content that they view online (Pan et al. 2014; Leung et al. 2013; Sigala et al. 2012). The use of blogs, microblogs, and social media pages like Instagram and Facebook are on the rise and are now popular mediums for disseminating information about travel and sharing experiences (Tse and Zhang 2013; Roque and Raposo 2016; Leung et al. 2013; Sigala et al. 2012; Ayeh et al. 2013). These online sources where online users post reviews of their tourism experiences contribute to the design and creation of the destination image (Sigala et al. 2012). It is this transparency that is appreciated by other travelers and particularly by young tourists as this is how an increasing number of young travelers are receiving and gathering information in their everyday lives. John (2017) encourages tourism marketers to deepen their engagement with online media, particularly social media and blog pages by responding to comments, reviews, and queries to improve interactive forms on communication with tourists and help establish a positive destination images among consumers.

Additional to the reporting of new marketing techniques by way of online resources, other exciting tourism trends were identified within tourism literature as the industry expands and allows for niche markets, encouraging product development within these unique sectors. Some of the most reported themes within the literature include the development of exhibition sector for gaming destinations (Qiu et al. 2015); film-induced tourism developments, specifically in South Korea (Han and Lee 2008; Chan 2007); the growth in domestic tourism (Mena et al. 2004); golf tourism emerging as a niche market (Song et al. 2017a, b); rise of music festivals (Han et al. 2017); food festivals (Adeyinka-Ojo and Khoo-Lattimore 2013); medical tourism (John 2017); the continued growth of ecotourism (Lee et al. 2014); long-stay relaxation holidays (Anantamongkolkul et al. 2017); the rise of small-medium budget hotels (Jaafar et al. 2012); and the expansion of heritage tourism (Yan et al. 2007).

Five chapters are presented in Part III on destination marketing within the Asia Pacific. Chapter 12 continues the discussion on destination development by introducing the concept of smart tourism development. This is a new contribution to literature as smart tourism is not prominent in current research. This chapter investigates the concept of smart tourism and its outcomes of increased efficiency enhance sustainability practices and improved tourist experiences. Continuing the discussion on destination marketing and current trends within tourism marketing is Chap. 13, where big data is introduced and assessed by media discourse. Chaps. 14, 15, and 16 are innovative and provide new knowledge in marketing destinations as they explore new tourism trends in niche areas. Chapter 14 focuses on river tourism in China identifying four main types: riverbank sightseeing, river boats, river drifting (piaoliu ziyou or ziyou piao), and whitewater rafting (yeshui piaoliu or baishui piaoliu). Utilizing multiple data collection methods, Chap. 15 investigates how young hosts view and welcome tourists in Lhasa, Tibet. Chapter 16 contributes to the conversation on young tourism by examining cultural heritage tourism from a youth perspective. The chapter highlights young travelers’ desires to experience cultural tourism by visiting sites with abundant historical and cultural significance.

5 Conclusion

Unlike tourism in Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand, the Asian tourism boom is a relatively recent phenomenon. Many destinations in the region are still in the developing phase of their life cycle. Resembling what mature destinations experienced in their early days, many Asian destinations are enjoying the benefits of mass tourism, often in economic terms. As tourists become more experienced and destinations mature, a natural shift of focus would be from an approach characterized by spontaneous responses to tourism development and undifferentiated tourism offerings to one that is associated with more professional planning, management, and marketing exercises, as well as personalized and individualist tourist products. Indeed, China, the largest tourist source market for many Asian destinations, has quickly evolved into a market much more sophisticated than only a few years ago. Well-established destinations such as Australia have responded with strategies targeting independent group tourists and niche markets within the Chinese market. While existing literature has started to explore niche tourist markets, future studies must continue research into new niche tourism markets in the Asian tourism context and into issues surrounding strategic planning and management of these new trends and market segments.

A better understanding of Asian tourists is required for the long-term sustainability of Asian and global tourism. As Pearce and Wu (Pearce and Wu 2016) describe in their book, The World Meets Asian Tourists, there is a lack of understanding and awareness of Asian tourists’ customs, needs, and cultural practice; and “regrettably, the welcome given to the new Asian tourists was at best haphazard” (p. ix). Further, diversity within Asia is also evident with existing differences in ethnicity, religion, cultural, and historical background. Evidence of this includes Kwek and Lee (2008) who revealed cultural variance in the ethnic Chinese market, and similarly, one would expect a high level of variation in culture, region, and custom in India. However, so far, we have seen a lack of research on Asian tourists that refer to tourists’ unique social, cultural, historical, and political background. More rigorous cross-cultural studies are therefore required to understand the root of heterogeneity in the Asian market. For instance, Confucius values shape Chinese (and possibly other East Asian travelers’) view of family, friends, and gender role, which subsequently influence travel decision-making and preferences (Song et al. 2017a, b), while rootedness and community belongingness shape Maldivians’ response and attitude toward international tourists (Shakeela and Weaver 2017). Given the popularity of short haul international travels within the region (e.g., between South Korea and Japan, China and Thailand, Taiwan and Hong Kong), such cross-cultural understanding would benefit Asian destinations.

We also call for further exploration into the technological space about issues such as social media marketing, mobile technologies, and smart tourism development. Asia represents a spectrum of technological readiness with countries/regions such as South Korea, Hong Kong, and Japan being ranked among the top ten countries in the Global Information and Communication Technology Development Index (ICT Development Index) at one end, and nations like Nepal, Bhutan, and Cambodia that are of low ICT development sitting at the other end (International Telecommunication Union 2016). This unequal development in ICT creates challenges for destination management, for instance, with regard to meeting tourists’ ICT demand in low ICT development countries. Further, although review sites and social media platforms such as TripAdvisor, Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter are dominant players in the West, Asian travelers have other/additional preferences such as WeChat and Weibo for Chinese, Kakaotalk for South Koreans, and Line for Japanese. Mining opinions on these sites will generate invaluable insights into these markets. Another avenue for future research relates to mobile technologies which are powerful in shaping consumers’ purchase behaviors in Asia. Mobile payments and digital wallets are becoming increasingly popular. The 2017 Singles’ Day online sales event in China saw the sales volume totaling US$25.3 billion, with 90% of the transactions being processed via mobile (Toplin 2017). Asian tourism literature needs to timely reflect on the role of mobile technologies in travel decision-making and booking as well as in assisting destination experience. The latter is particularly relevant to smart destination development.

Current Asian tourism literature’s geographical focus on China is justified by the country’s status as the world’s largest source market and one of the top tourist destinations (UNWTO 2017). That said, other Asian countries in the region differ substantially from China and popular destinations in the West and hence offer potential opportunities for theory development and contribution to knowledge. Two such examples are India and Indonesia, both representing a massive market for tourism destinations, nonetheless differing substantially in culture, history, religion, and political situation. However, a search of literature revealed disproportionally little interest in these two countries.

The final point of observation we would like to raise is the lack of studies on destination competitiveness, especially comparative analysis across Asian destinations. Aspects contributing to destination competitiveness such as destination image and service quality have been widely researched, but an underpinning of Asian hosts’ cultural values and perception of other Asian tourists would offer more insightful and relevant implications for the planning, management, and marketing of Asian destinations. Research also highlights other relevant issues and crises in Asian destinations. For example, many developing nations in Asia have yet to implement policy on tourists’ rights at destinations. While there have been studies, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, considering unethical business practice concerning Chinese tourism, effort is yet to extend to other Asian countries. It is also worth noting that previous studies took either a business management or a tourist experience angle in studying this phenomenon without examining the perspective of tourists’ rights and the ethics of tourists.

With Asia and the Pacific projected to be the region to have the strongest growth in tourist arrivals by 2030 (UNWTO 2017), it is our hope that this book will contribute new knowledge on Asian tourism destinations by providing success stories, recommendations, and strategies for longevity into the future.