Towards the Natural Resource Management for Resilient Shifting Cultivation System in Eastern Himalayas

Abstract

Eastern Himalayan states in general and Nagaland in particular are known for their diversified cultural heritage and jhum cultivation as mainstay of livelihood. Inhabitants in this region are otherwise non-vegetarian and rice is the staple food. Traditional jhum cultivation is not subsistent to fulfil the requirement of the increasing population in the hilly states. Reduced jhum cycle (3–5 years), widespread water scarcity during the post-monsoon seasons, subsistence agriculture practice, lack of awareness about improved agriculture technologies, poor credit and marketing facilities, lack of infrastructures, pitiable socio-economic status of the people, etc. are the major issues confronted by the tribal people in the eastern Himalayan region. In this perspective, holistic approaches with modern agro-based interventions for augmenting production, productivity, income and employment generation in a sustainable manner are the need of the hour. This document depicts the agricultural scenario in several cluster villages in different districts particularly Mon, Wokha, Longleng, Peren, Kohima and Dimapur in Nagaland. The introduction and popularization of scientific intervention in agriculture and allied sector have changed the mindset of many tribal poors in adopted villages and became instrumental in the transformation of traditional jhum cultivation into a profitable agricultural enterprise. Moreover, the farmers have accepted the modern agro-techniques and high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of crops and livestock, cultivation practices, soil and water conservation measures and integration of livestock components in traditional agriculture. Increasing cropping intensity, productivity, gross returns from unit area and several-fold increase in employment generation were among the few several achievements following the implementation of agro-based intervention.

16.1 Introduction

Shifting cultivation traditionally named as ‘jhum’ is considered as one of the oldest practices in the eastern Himalayan region of India particularly in Nagaland. In this form of agriculture, a piece of forest land is slashed, burnt and cropped without tilling the soil, and the cropped land is subsequently fallowed to attain pre-slashed forest status through natural succession (Rathore et al. 2012). Over the past two decades, due to increasing human population, the jhum cycle in the same land, which extended to 10–12 years in earlier days, has now been reduced to 3–6 years (Singh et al. 2003). A huge number of tribal farmers are involved in this primitive cultivation, and estimation reveals that more than 100 indigenous tribes and over 6.2 lakh families of north-eastern region depend on jhum cultivation (Patiram and Verma 2001; Anonymous 2002). ~85 % of the total cultivation area in north-east India is covered by shifting cultivation (Rathore et al. 2012). The existing shifting cultivation practice in north-east India is an injudicious form of land use. Cropping is continued for one or two cropping seasons only till all nutrients are mined up. Then the lands are left for again growing of forest and the same site is chosen after 10–15 years. Since complete eradication of shifting cultivation is practically impossible, research for prescribing resilient shifting cultivation for sustainable development is required.

The existing scenario of shifting cultivation practice and its impact on livelihood has been studied during the past several years to chalk out the strategies for developing the resilient shifting cultivation practice with a goal of sustainable development and food security. The phenomenon encircling shifting cultivation with soil-water-plant-society continuum approach has shown positive impact for holistic development of the tribal populations who are otherwise dependent on shifting cultivation and traditional animal husbandry for their livelihood security. This chapter describes the present scenario of shifting cultivation, its impact on soil fertility and agriculture production system and possible alternatives applied for augmenting the productivity of crops and livestock, opportunities in income and employment generation through livestock, horticulture and agroforestry-based farming system for gradual transformation towards settle cultivation in Nagaland. Adoption of improved agro-based technology has resulted in the restoration of degraded jhum land to a settled cultivation consisting of agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry components in several cluster villages of different districts, namely, Mon, Longleng, Wokha, Peren, Dimapur, etc. This success in cluster villages was the eye-opener for many tribal farmers in the state.

16.2 Present Scenario of Shifting Cultivation

16.2.1 Impact on Soil Degradation

• Severe soil and nutrient losses accompany land clearing in the early stages of plantations.

• Shifting cultivation in north-east India has increased the problem of land degradation.

• Rapidly expanding population pressure has resulted in misuse of land resource.

• Estimates reveal 88.3–146 MT of the soil is lost annually as a result of shifting cultivation.

A study conducted by Arunachalam (2002) reported that soil organic carbon, available P, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, ammonium N and nitrate N decreased as the duration of cultivation increased under jhum cropping. However, the microbial biomasses C, N and P were high in forest stand. Microbial biomass C increased gradually as cultivation progressed, while microbial biomass N and P showed postburn decreasing trend. Bacterial and fungal populations were drastically reduced following the slash burning. Over the past two decades, due to increasing human population, jhum cycle in the same land, which extended to 20–30 years in older days, has now been reduced to 3–6 years (Borthakur 1992; Singh et al. 2003). Presently, it is estimated that the number of people practising shifting cultivation is around 367,000 tribal families, and the area affected by this practice is ~385,400 ha annually (Patiram and Verma 2001). The loss of 100–250 metric tonnes of topsoil ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ is depleted due to jhum cultivation in Bangladesh hills (Karim and Mansor 2011). On an average, an area of 3869 km² is put under shifting cultivation every year. Excessive deforestation (net loss of 1577 km² forest cover between 1999 and 2001) coupled with jhum practice has resulted in tremendous soil loss. In general, shifting cultivation practices deteriorate soil fertility due to huge soil loss of ~2–200 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ (Saha et al. 2011), and a minimum period of 10–15 years is very much essential to maintain the soil fertility for sustainable crop production (Singh et al. 2003; Meena et al. 2013, 2015a, b; Singh et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2015a; Ghosh et al. 2016). Carbon and nitrogen in soil are the most limiting factors for plant growth after the forest is cut and then burned. Mishra and Saha (2003) reported that only fallow period under shifting cultivation is not enough for consideration of restoration capacity of soil.

16.2.2 Constraints in Jhum

Although jhum is practised since time immemorial, it faces several constraints which lead to a decline in the productivity and profitability. The major constraints listed below came into our knowledge while interacting with jhumias in several forums:

• Reduced jhum cycle: earlier cycle was 10–15 years which is now reduced to 3–5 years.

• Water scarcity during the post-monsoon/winter seasons particularly from Oct. to March.

• Lack of awareness about improved agriculture technologies and vegetable cultivation.

• Monocropping with traditional practices and management.

• Lack of high-yielding quality of seed and planting materials.

• Indigenous breed of livestock and poultry managed with zero to negligible input.

• Shortfall in animal protein availability.

• Lack of disease control facilities for crop and livestock.

• Poor socio-economic status of the people.

• Poor credit and marketing facilities.

16.3 Alternatives to Sustaining the Jhum Farming

Since a huge number of tribal farmers are involved in this cultivation, therefore the complete eradication of this method is practically impossible. Thus, only two ways are left to check the damage of the environment either by increasing the jhum cycle or taking some immediate reclamation process to the areas already affected by jhum through a wasteland development plan. Arunachalam and Arunachalam (2002) suggested the utilization of bamboos in eco-restoration of jhum fallows in Arunachal Pradesh. Soil pH increased after burning and decreased as the cultivation progressed in the jhum field. In different parts of north-east India, land is opt to be abandoned after the first year of jhum cropping, and second-year cropping is sometimes practised with plantations of banana and pineapple (Anonymous 2002). However, the crops, viz. maize (Zea mays L.), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), orange (Citrus spp.), colocasia (Colocasia esculenta L.), tapioca (Manihot esculenta L.), pineapple (Ananas comosus L.), etc., are popularly grown in a jhum field, while the wet rice cultivation on terrace (panikheti) is practised in Kohima, Phek, Peren and Dimapur district of Nagaland. Studies about soil fertility status under different jhum cycles at various elevations suggest that plots with short jhum cycles (5 years) have lower fertility than those with longer cycles (10 or more years) as reported by Mishra and Saha (2003). Saha et al. (2011) studied the soil erodibility characteristics under six land-use systems, i.e. agriculture, agri-horti-silvi-pasture, natural forest, livestock-based land use, natural fallow and shifting cultivation (jhum). They also observed that shifting cultivation showed the highest erosion ratio (12.5) followed by agriculture (~10.4), indicating the need to adopt tree-based land-use systems for resource conservation. They also reported that soil loss was significantly higher in shifting cultivation (30.2–170.2 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹), agriculture (5.1–68.2 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and livestock-based land-use systems (0.88–14.3 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) as compared to other modified land-use systems. Rathore and Bhatt (2008) observed that rice-vegetable pea/bean cropping system was the most suitable under jhum land of Nagaland, and integration of fish, pig, dairy cattle, duck and crops such as rice, vegetable pea and French bean showed maximum system productivity followed by cultivation of rice, vegetable pea and beans along with dairy cattle (free grazing).

16.4 Scientific Intervention Towards Sustainable Agricultural Production

To address these constraints, various scientific interventions in soil, water and nutrient conservation, crops, livestock and subsidiary enterprises were undertaken:

• Terracing of existing jhum land for wet rice (panikheti)-based farming system

• Increasing of cropping intensity by introduction short-duration crops after rice fallow

• Introduction of high-yielding varieties of crop and improved agro-techniques

• Restoration of degraded jhum lands through agroforestry-based farming system

• Introduction of water-harvesting techniques and its multiple uses

• Horticulture-based farming system

• IFS through promoting scientific animal husbandry (e.g. pig-fish integration)

• Capacity-building programmes

16.4.1 Paddy-Based Farming System in Terrace

In Mon district of Nagaland under the NAIP project, an initiative was taken to introduce the settle cultivation where altogether ~210 nos. of terraces were constructed in degraded jhum land covering an area of ~7.5 ha. It has in turn resulted in settled cultivation of paddy and other crops. By seeing the success, several farmers of the region have started to make terraces themselves, thereby helping in significantly reducing the jhum area of the region. Cropping intensity which was ~104 % before the intervention has now increased to ~146 %. Moreover, the farmers have accepted the modern agro-techniques and high-yielding varieties of crops like paddy, maize, rapeseed and mustard, potato, beans, tapioca and other vegetables (Fig. 16.1). This has finally helped the farmers to increase the productivity up to two- to threefolds higher than traditional cultivars (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012a; Deka et al. 2013; Meena et al. 2015c, d).

Fig. 16.1

Paddy/toria cultivation on terrace

In upland condition, paddy-maize-based cropping system was introduced with the use of high-yielding crops such as paddy (SARS-1, 2, 4, 5; Bhalum-1, 2, 3; Rakchu, Lampanah, Shasarang) and maize (RCM-76, Navjot composite), which became popular among the farmers due to its higher yield potential. Among the different crops, the productivity of paddy, maize, vegetables and colocasia was increased from 1.9 to 3.5 t ha⁻¹, 0.7 to 1.2 t ha⁻¹, 4.5 to 6.4 t ha⁻¹ and 10.5 to 12.3 t ha⁻¹, respectively (Table 16.1). Due to increase in productivity, the net income for paddy, maize, vegetables and colocasia was enhanced to Rs. 20,000–79,056 (Deka et al. 2013; Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012b).

Table 16.1 Production and productivity of different crops in cluster villages of Mon district in Nagaland

Monocropping was practised in the village before the intervention in the form of terrace making and introduction of high-yielding upland paddy varieties (Munda et al. 2012). Indigenous landrace, foxtail millet, colocasia, tapioca and some seasonal vegetables were grown by the farmers in the jhum fields prior to the interventions. The productivity of local upland paddy was found to be lesser than 1 t ha⁻¹; likewise, the productivity of colocasia, tapioca and foxtail millet was recorded to be 5.97, 21.8 and 1.4 t ha⁻¹, respectively. Through wet land/terrace paddy cultivation, an attempt was made to increase not only the rice productivity but also to introduce second cropping, which otherwise was not followed by the stakeholders (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012a; Deka et al. 2013; Verma et al. 2015b; Meena et al. 2016).

Terracing was done in the lower part of the hillock in Lampong Sheanghah village having a slope lesser than ~30 %. Paddy varieties (Shasarang and Lampanah) developed by ICAR RC for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya, were cultivated, and the productivity of the varieties was threefold higher than the indigenous landraces, i.e. Rakchu having the productivity of 1.27 t ha⁻¹ in wetland or terrace condition. Vegetable crops, viz. tomato, French bean, carrot, radish, potato and coriander, were being cultivated during the winter season with limited assured irrigation facilities after harvesting paddy. Before the intervention, only upland paddy, colocasia, tapioca and foxtail millet were grown, indicating symptoms of malnutrition. However, the nutritional security was achieved at household level only after introduction of the terrace system (Munda et al. 2012).

16.4.1.1 Productivity Enhancement

For increasing crop production and family income, rice-maize cropping systems with improved varieties of paddy (SARS-1, 2, 4 and 5; Bhalum-1, 2, 3 for upland and Lampanah and Shasarang and RCM-9 for lowland) and maize (RCM-76, Vijay and Navjot composite) and modern agro-techniques were introduced (Table 16.2). The improved varieties and technologies so adopted by the farmers have increased the yield of various crops in the range of 57.2–90 % (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012b; Deka et al. 2013). Nowadays, the double cropping has become a normal practice in the adopted villages of Mon district of Nagaland in these days.

Table 16.2 Productivity of different local and improve varieties of crops at Mon district, Nagaland

16.4.1.2 Income Enhancement Through Improved Agro-Based Intervention

With monocropping, indigenous landraces of paddy, foxtail millet, colocasia, tapioca and some seasonal vegetables were grown by the farmers in the jhum fields which was traditionally practised in villages before the initiation of the project. The productivity of all the crops was found to be very low than the improved variety available at ICAR, SAUs and research stations (Table 16.3). With the introduction of short-duration and fast-growing high-yielding varieties of paddy, maize and vegetable, cultivation became feasible as double cropping during the winter months. Thus, the overall productivity and profitability were enhanced by two- to threefolds (Munda et al. 2012; Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012a, b; Deka et al. 2013; Meena et al. 2015e; Verma et al. 2015a).

Table 16.3 Net income of the farmers adopting different farming system interventions

The intervention adopted for restoration of abandoned jhum area through bench terraces helps the farmers for cultivation of wet rice with suitable high-yielding varieties. This practice has finally enhanced the productivity of paddy up to threefolds over the traditional practices. Thus, the gross income has been increased to Rs. 32,850 ha⁻¹ (Table 16.4). It has been observed that once the irrigation facilities are assured, farmers are ready to take up the second crop. However, water harvesting offers opportunities for integration of livestock and fisheries, and the wetland cultivation shall be converted into farming system mode of food. Farmers are cultivating their second crop in large scale which was not followed earlier (Sahoo et al. 2012b).

Table 16.4 Economic evaluation of terracing and traditional cultivation practices

16.4.2 Vegetable-Based Farming System

Cultivation of second crops including vegetables become feasible after adoption of water-harvesting facilities, viz. base-flow-harvesting structures along with irrigation channels, jalkund, modified Thai jar, rooftop water harvesting, check dams, ponds, etc. These facilities enabled farmers to grow winter vegetables and oilseed crops, viz. dwarf pea (Azad), potato (Kufri Jyoti), cabbage (Samrat), tomato (Bioseed 56), onion (Nasik red), coriander (Ramses), bhindi (Tokita), bean (Yard Long), bitter gourd (Champion), ridge gourd (F1 hybrid), cucumber (Garima Super) and rapeseed and mustard (TS-36, TS-38), as second crops after paddy.

The beneficiary farmers were trained for nursery raising and package of practices for vegetable cultivation at a demonstration unit established in the village (Fig. 16.2). The vegetables were cultivated in an area of ~1.65 ha. Among the vegetables, potato cultivation occupied the maximum area (0.75 ha). Since the shifting cultivation was the mainstay of economy of the villagers before the implementation of the project, the concept of water harvesting and its multiple uses was new to them. During the implementation of the project, the major thrust was given for water harvesting and its multiple use based on the lesson learnt from the past. The net monetary income of the farmers has increased significantly with the present intervention (Table 16.5). It has opened up a new avenue for increasing the production and productivity not only in the target area but in other regions of the states (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012a).

Fig. 16.2

Water-harvesting structure for vegetable farming at Mon

Table 16.5 Economics of vegetables cultivation at the project site

16.4.3 Agroforestry- and Horticulture-Based Farming System

A total of 44,950 nos. of multipurpose tree saplings of khokan, hollock, tita chap, phulsap, Himalayan alder, bonsum and puma were planted covering an area of ~112 ha for restoration of degraded jhum land. Further, in horticulture-based jhum farming system (~28 ha), ~1285 saplings of fruit crops comprised of Khasi mandarin, Assam lemon, peach, litchi, guava and mango in multi-storey cropping system; ~63,210 large cardamom suckers and ~3300 banana suckers were planted in 10.5 ha.

These interventions facilitated in improving the degraded jhum land into a productive zone by substantially increasing soil health (Fig. 16.3). A small demonstration on Himalayan alder- and large cardamom-based cropping system in an area of ~0.16 ha with standard package of practices opened up the eyes of the poor farmers, and this has become a regular practice in many of the abandoned jhum fields (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Deka et al. 2013).

Fig. 16.3

Agroforestry intervention for improving the abandoned land at Mon

16.4.3.1 Restoration of Jhum Land by Multipurpose Tree Species

In the vast abandoned jhum areas (86.1 ha), multipurpose tree species, namely, khokan (Duabanga grandiflora Roxb), Himalayan alder (Alnus nepalensis), Tita chap (Michelia champaca), phulsap (Michelia oblonga), bonsum (Phoebe goalparensis), hollock (Terminalia) and puma (Chukrasia tabularis) saplings (34,450 nos.), were planted for restoration. Pits of 2 × 2 × 2 ft for each plant were prepared at a spacing of 5 × 5 m before the onset of monsoon, and 15 g of lime and 10 kg of farmyard manure (FYM) were mixed thoroughly with soil, and each pit was filled 2 months before plantation. Besides restoration of the land area, these trees enriched the soil nutrient status and soil microbial flora. The populations of beneficial insects and earthworms were also more in the restored land. As the alder is a nitrogen-fixing tree species, it has also increased the status of available nitrogen in the soil (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012b; Deka et al. 2013).

16.4.3.2 Half-Moon Terraces

The half-moon terraces were constructed for planting and maintaining saplings of fruit and fodder trees in horticulture and agroforestry land-use system. This type of terrace is made by earth cutting in half-moon shape to create circular level bed having 1–1.5 m diameter (Fig. 16.4). The bed may also have inward slope with an interval of planting spacing of the fruit and fodder trees. It helps in retaining soil fertility, moisture and added fertilizers and manures for healthy growth of the plant (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Deka et al. 2013).

Fig. 16.4

Fruit crops under half-moon terrace at Mon

16.4.4 Livestock-Based Farming System

Tribal communities inhabiting in the eastern Himalayas are mostly non-vegetarian; hence, the demand of animal protein is much more compared to other parts of the country. Pig, poultry, cattle, mithun and rabbit are popularly maintained in majority of households in the region. However, the low-input small-scale traditional livestock production system with indigenous variety could not produce enough meat, milk and egg to meet the nutritional requirement (Bhatt and Bujarbaruah 2005). Non-availability of quality germplasm and critical inputs like feeds, medicines and vaccines and lack of awareness are major stumbling blocks in the development of the livestock sector in the state. ICAR RC for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, had taken initiative to augment livestock productivity through introduction of quality pig and poultry germplasm and creating awareness about scientific management and health-care practices. Further, integration of livestock component along with traditional agriculture and horticulture was also popularized to provide an opportunity of additional income and ensure optimum use of farm resources. There is a dynamic relationship between livestock and crops in this kind of farming systems. Integration of farming basically aims at enchasing upon the interdependencies of the systems. Livestock depend on crops and crop by-products for their feed and fodder requirements and return nutrients to the crops via manure for sustainability of system (Bhatt and Bujarbaruah 2005).

16.4.4.1 Production Enhancement

Livestock-based interventions were made by our groups in the remote villages of the eastern Himalayan region, particularly in Nagaland, where modern facilities of agriculture and animal husbandry were not available. For increasing livestock production and family income, improved technologies, viz. suitable varieties, scientific management practices, integration of agriculture and livestock components and health-care facilities, were introduced and popularized. The improved varieties and technologies were so adopted by the farmers that have increased the overall productivity (Table 16.6) in the range of 125–275 % (Patra et al. 2015a, b). The continuity of these technologies will further increase the production and productivity of agriculture and allied components as the farmers are by now fully empowered with the required skill, training and motivation.

Table 16.6 Productivity enhancement of livestock and poultry with improved technologies

16.4.4.2 Income Enhancement

Due to introduction and adoption of improved germplasm of livestock and poultry, the family income has increased several folds. Further, the intensive integrated farming system has benefited the farmers for regular income and employment even from a small piece of land (<1 acre), which, otherwise, remain non-remunerative. The feedback analysis given below has shown an increasing trend in income following the adoption of improved technologies.

16.4.4.3 Fattening of Improved Variety of Pigs

The low-cost fattening unit with two to four pigs of improved variety is still very popular among the poor farmers and landless labourer. The performance of such low-cost fattening unit (six nos.) located at Jharnapani, Dimapur, was evaluated to understand its economic impact on the livelihood of farm labourers (Fig. 16.5). The piglets were procured from the ICAR farm and maintained at low-cost housing facilities with traditional feeding of crop residues and kitchen waste for ~10 to 11 months. Regular health care and vaccination were taken care of by ICAR (Table 16.7). The net profit from each pig was recorded at an average of Rs. 3925 to Rs. 16,520 (Patra et al. 2015a). In the survey study with the six beneficiaries in Jharnapani, the performance of the piggery unit owned by Shri Meren was the best remuneration followed by Mrs. T. Jami. Thus, low-cost fattening unit could generate additional income and employment for farm labourers and help in livelihood security.

Table 16.7 Economic analysis of low-input pig fattening units at Jharnapani village

Fig. 16.5

Low-cost pig fattening units at Jharnapani village

16.4.4.4 Semi-intensive Poultry Farming (100–400 Nos.)

Rearing of improved varieties of Vanaraja and Gramapriya birds at lesser numbers (10–20) is very popular for backyard farming. However, many farmers have tried with medium- to large-scale semi-intensive poultry unit and generated additional income of rupees 10,000–40,000 from 100 birds (Table 16.8 and Fig. 16.6). Farmers who are interested in meat production can maintain at least three batches per year and depending on capacity could generate additional income in the range of rupees 1.0–1.5 lakh from 350 to 400 birds (Patra et al. 2015b).

Table 16.8 Economic analysis of semi-intensive poultry unit established at different districts in Nagaland

Fig. 16.6

Low-cost semi-intensive poultry units

16.4.4.5 Nutritional Improvement

In most of the remote villages in the eastern Himalayan region, the availability of animal protein was meagre. The main source of animal protein was hunting of either wild animals or very few local animals available in the villages. However, after popularization of backyard poultry and pig varieties in the state, animal protein particularly egg and meat is now available round the year. As an entry point activity, Vanaraja and Gramapriya birds were distributed at 20–30 per household for backyard farming in many villages (Table 16.9). With the minimum scientific input in housing, feeding and health care, these improved backyard poultry varieties performed better than the indigenous birds available in the villages and attained an average body weight of 2.5–3.0 kg after 6 months of rearing and produced an average of 140–160 eggs per annum. At least 30–40 % of these birds were consumed at home; thus, the monthly consumption of animal protein has increased from a near negligible amount to 2–8 kg/person (Fig. 16.7). Besides nutritional security, the farmers earned an additional income of Rs. 140–160 per bird after rearing ~5 to 6 months (Kumar et al. 2015d).

Table 16.9 Availability of poultry meat after introduction of improved variety

Fig. 16.7

Small-scale poultry unit maintained for household consumption and additional income

16.4.4.6 Employment Generation

People living below the poverty line were mostly dependent on agriculture and livestock component for their livelihood and had minimum scope of employment for 3–4 months during the cropping season. However, after introduction of the second crop after rice, integrated farming system, medium- to large-scale pig-breeding unit and semi-intensive poultry farming have created employment for farm women and rural unemployed youth round the year. The semi-intensive poultry unit of 200–400 birds’ capacity maintained for a dual purpose generated employment for farm women/youth round the year and gave an income of at least 5000–7000 per month.

An integrated farming system with agri + horti + livestock + fishery + vermicompost components created employment for more than 200 days for a family as compared to only 60 days while practising only rice cultivation in less than one acre of land. Similarly, pig-breeding unit with ten sows has the potential to generate employment for a person for ~200 days with monthly income more than rupees 10,000 per month (Table 16.10). The rural youth trained in animal health care and vaccination and those who are practising artificial insemination for pig have got a tremendous opportunity to earn at least rupees 20,000–25,000 per month (Kumar et al. 2015d; Patra et al. 2015a, b).

Table 16.10 Employment generation potential of various interventions adopted

16.4.5 Intensive Integration of Agri-horti-livestock-Based Farming System

To overcome the problems of resource-poor farmers, a holistic, resource-based, client-oriented and interacting approach popularly known as intensive integrated farming system (IIFS) was developed at the institute level (Fig. 16.8). The performance of each model consisting of agri-horti-livestock (pig/poultry) and fisheries was evaluated for three consecutive years and later on replicated at farmers’ field. Rice/maize + toria + mung bean-based cropping system, along with fruits (mango, lemon, banana, etc.), vegetables (year-round seasonal vegetables), livestock (pig/poultry), vermicompost, Azolla and mushroom, was integrated in less than 1 acre of land which has increased the cropping intensity for more than 300 %, with additional income of Rs. 11,000–32,000 and employment for 250–365 days as compared to only 60 days in rice-based (Table 16.11) monocropping system (Kumar et al. 2015b).

Fig. 16.8

Integrated farming system model site at Mon and Wokha

Table 16.11 Economics of farming system model developed at ICAR Nagaland Centre

In farmers’ field, integrated farming system models were developed in participatory mode by two approaches, first by utilizing the existing water body available with the farmers and second by constructing water-harvesting structure using jalkund or pond lining with UV-stabilized HDPE sheet. The agriculture land located at the periphery was used for crops, and the bunds were utilized for cultivation of vegetables and fruits and rearing livestock. Depending on the capacity of water-harvesting structures, labour force and topography, the agriculture plots were utilized for agri + horti + livestock-based farming system. The models developed at farmers’ field with the adopted technology are presented in Table 16.12 (Annual Report, 2014–2015; Kumar et al. 2015a).

Table 16.12 Details of integrated farming system model developed/supported under TSP

16.4.5.1 Water Storage in Farms

In Nagaland, most of the hills are steep having a slope more than 50 % and are separated by deep river gorges. Despite the heavy monsoon rain, people face acute water problems every year in dry season. The geological formation does not permit water retention; run-off is quick and springs and small streams dry up when there is no rain. Rooftop harvesting structures for drinking purpose have been developed locally and now spread in the entire Mon district of Nagaland. It has proved to be quite successful. Most houses are built with sloping roofs with galvanized iron sheets which are conducive to rainwater harvesting. A common method of storing rainwater is to place horizontal rain gutters along the sides of a sloping roof, which is normally made of corrugated iron sheets (Fig. 16.9). Rainwater pours into a pipe connected to the tank which is mostly made from GCI sheets/galvanized plain sheets. But many people have started using reinforced cement concrete tanks, located in the courtyard or under the house (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Sahoo et al. 2012a; Deka et al. 2013).

Fig. 16.9

Rooftop water-harvesting structure at Mon

16.4.6 Restoration of Degraded Jhum Land Through Conservation of Soil Fertility and Improving Water Productivity

North-eastern states receive heavy rain during peak monsoon from April to September. High rainfall intensity leads to more run-off. Such water has been traditionally conserved in situ by locally made structures. It may be lined/unlined and of various capacities depending on catchment size and farmers’ need. Farmers construct storage tanks that may be in the form of tanks, ponds or small reservoirs. These tanks may be located on top/middle of the slope or foothills. This is preferably made of natural depressions to keep down the cost of excavations. Irrigation in the land below the pond is done through gravity method and land above by lifting of the water from the pond. If the pond is unlined, stored water recharges the soil profile, and the lowland or storage reservoirs at the lower reaches are benefited. Due to coarse-textured soils, water retention in these ponds is a great problem (Fig. 16.10).

Fig. 16.10

Farm pond at Kolasib, Mizoram

16.4.6.1 Mulching with Paddy Straw

During winter season after harvesting of the rice, these rice straw pieces are spread in the field as mulch for the succeeding maize crop. The crop residue left on the surface cushions raindrops’ impact and reduces water movement, and hence soil erosion is checked. As run-off and evaporation are reduced, water infiltration is improved. Application of crop residues in the long run improves soil structure and fertility. However, farmers have expressed that the use of these materials for mulch often reduces the availability of fodder to cattle; therefore when fodder is in short supply, they do not practice mulching. Kumar (2015) conducted a field experiment at ICAR, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani, to evaluate the best management practices, i.e. mulching, liming and farmyard manures, for maximizing the productivity, profitability, nutrient uptake and quality on winter maize during the two consecutive rabi seasons of 2010–2012. Results revealed that application of straw mulches significantly increased growth and yield attributes and grain yield by rabi maize. This may be attributed to higher water regime and better water balance, which lead to vigorous growth and more yield attributes produced in mulch plot (Sharma et al. 2010).

Among the levels of lime, higher grain yield (3.91 t/ha) and stover yield (4.24 t/ha) were noted with application of lime at 0.6 t/ha. This might be due to the release of Ca²⁺ from lime, which meets the demands and creates favourable conditions for better uptake of essential nutrients particularly P (Kumar et al. 2012). Significantly, higher grain (3.79 t/ha) and stover yields (4.17 t/ha) were recorded with application of FYM at 12 t/ha. Improvement in yield of crop may be attributed to better nutrient availability resulting into a higher yield (Kumar 2014).

16.4.6.2 SRI: An Alternative Method of Rice Cultivation

In India, SRI technology started picking up. States like Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have done good progress with this technology. Even in north-east India, also a lot of works are undertaken in SRI. In Tripura after introduction of SRI techniques, an average of ~20 % higher yield is obtained compared to conventional practice. This state has covered ~15 % of its area under SRI. These practices can improve rice productivity by 15–20 % over conventional practices. The significant aspect of these practices is that the crop duration gets shortened by ~10 to 15 day. Kumar et al. (2015c) conducted a field experiment at the Agricultural Research Farm of ICAR RC for NEH Region, Nagaland Centre, Jharnapani, in two consecutive kharif seasons of 2011–2013. This study compared the effect of crop establishment methods and nutrient management practices on production potential, nutrient uptake and energetics in transplanted rice in hill ecosystem of the eastern Himalayan region. Results showed that growth characteristics (plant height, tillers/m², dry matter production, root volume and root biomass) recorded significantly higher with SRI followed by ICM and CTR. Thus, maximum utilization of available plant nutrient resulted in ultimately higher grain filling (%), panicle length and weight, number of grains per panicle and test weight and finally increased the crop productivity.

Mirza et al. (2010) reported an increase in the number of tillers in rice plants due to integrated application of organic and inorganic nutrients. Similarly, the higher yield attributes (number of panicles/hill and panicle length) and yields were recorded under SRI as compared to ICM/CTR. Among the nutrient management practices, application of 100 % RDF + rice straw 5 t ha⁻¹ produced higher grain yield (4.7 t/ha) followed by 100 % RDN (farmyard manure) + rice straw 5 t ha⁻¹(4.57 t ha⁻¹). This significant response might be due to enhanced nutrient availability to the crop by the application of organic manures in combination with inorganic fertilizers and the higher grain and straw yield of rice with integrated application (Das et al. 2013).

16.4.6.3 Surface Seeding/Zero Tillage

In low-lying poorly drained heavy rice soils, at the time of harvesting of paddy in the month of November, soil moisture is too high which does not allow timely tillage operation for sowing till the month of January. Thereby, farmers were forced to leave field vacant. So they have evolved practice of sowing mustard in the months of November and December just after harvesting of paddy by broadcasting in saturated soil surface without any tillage operation. It is widely practised by small and marginal farmers of Serchhip and Champhai district of Mizoram (Prasad et al. 2009). This practice is similar to the zero-tillage practice being advocated by the scientists nowadays. However, when seeds are sown on open soil surface, they are damaged/eaten by birds. To protect the seeds from bird’s damage, farmers use thin layer of cow dung on seed surface before the seed. Similarly, different toria varieties during the rabi season were evaluated at ICAR Jharnapani under zero tillage, and it was found that the maximum yield was recorded by variety TS-38 (490 kg ha⁻¹). This showed that under the resource conservation technology, these varieties may be commercially exploited for farmers’ fields (Annual Report 2013–2014).

16.4.6.4 Application of Common Salt for Weed Management in Jhum Rice

The farmers in north-east regions including Nagaland manage weeds manually, restricting its feasibility especially at peak weeding period. This might be owing to the non-availability of labourers during critical physiological stages and high expenditures on labour forces in upland rice cultivation which sometimes becomes unprofitable. However, extremely acidic soil condition in shifting cultivation areas helps in managing weeds with the use of salt application since the time immemorial. Jhum farmers of these regions traditionally used to apply common salt in upland rice as post-emergence spray to manage the annual broad-leaved weeds. Common salt is not a recommended herbicide to control broad-leaved weeds; however, alien weeds, e.g. Ageratum conyzoides and Parthenium hysterophorus, have been successfully controlled with application of 15–20 % common salt.

However, still time and levels of common salt application in rice have not been accredited under jhum field. Therefore, efforts have been made to validate the indigenous technical knowledge for weed management and improving the productivity, profitability, nutrient uptake and soil health of upland jhum rice to evolve a realistic weed management approach under shifting cultivation area of Nagaland. An experiment was conducted during the kharif season of 2012–2014 to assess the effect of common salt (NaCl) to manage the weed problem in upland rice with different doses of salt application, viz. 20–200 kg ha⁻¹ (2–20 % NaCl) at 20 and 40 DAS along with a control/weedy check and weedy-free check. Result revealed that altogether 17 weed species were identified, out of which the broad-leaved weeds (BLWs), grasses and sedges comprised of 82.5 %, 12 % and 5.5 %, respectively. The BLWs Borreria hispida, Urena lobata, Eupatorium odoratum, Bidens pilosa and Ageratum conyzoides; the grasses Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa colonum and Cyperus rotundus; and the sedges were among the noticed prominent weed flora. Application of increasing levels of common salt up to 20 % at 20 DAS recorded markedly lower weed population and dry matter as compared to the application of common salt at 40 DAS. Similarly, common salt applied at 20 % at 20 DAS recorded the highest weed control efficiency (WCE, 36.24 %), whereas comparatively lower WCE (32.67 %) was observed with salt applied at 40 DAS.

The better performance of growth characters of jhum rice in weed control treatments was due to enhanced crop growth attributes and effectiveness of chemicals in controlling weeds (Tabin and Singh 2008; Chatterjee et al. 2015). Application of 10 % common salt recorded significantly higher grain yield (2315.6 kg ha⁻¹) and straw yield (3589.1 kg ha⁻¹) as compared to their preceding levels (2–8 % NaCl), and beyond that, the effect of applied common salt was recorded at par (12–20 %). The increase in yield could attribute to an increase in growth and yield attributes, viz. the number of tillers, dry matter, number of panicles/m² and panicle length, along with a decrease in chaffy grains in a controlled plot (Kumar et al. 2016a; Chatterjee et al. 2015). Similarly, application of common salt up to 150 kg ha⁻¹ recorded significantly higher grain yield due to better performance of growth and yield attributes of jhum rice (Tabin and Singh 2008). In respect of soil health, application of common salt (2–20 %) did not exert any marked influence on soil physico-chemical properties, viz. pH, SOC and available NPK; however, EC increased for a short period. The enormous rainfall coupled with steep slope reduced the salt concentration from the soil. The differences in timing and intensity of rainfall after salt application and amount and type of ground cover would affect the extent to which salt was available on the soil surface (Kumar et al. 2016a).

16.4.6.5 Bio-terracing

The shifting cultivation adversely affects the fertility status of jhum land, and the land becomes unsustainable for cultivation of the crops. The problem is very much intense in jhum lands where organic matter, soil nutrients and microbial biota are lost due to the burning of the forests. The bio-terracing models with growing of different suitable hedgerow species which act as restoration factory for maintaining the fertility status of the soil reduce soil erosion and also conserve the moisture in situ for sustainable production of agricultural crop in the hilly regions. The similar concept has been also tested under the lowland condition for in situ biomass production and fertility restoration of the soil and to reduce the dependence on external inputs like fertilizer (Sahoo et al. 2012a, b). The hedgerow species like Tephrosia candida, Crotalaria juncea, Indigofera tinctoria, Flemingia macrophylla and Cajanus cajan have been tried on alternate raised bunds in paddy fields by many researchers. A good amount of biomass has been produced to supplement the nutrient requirement for these crops. On an average, from pruning of the hedgerow species, an amount of 20–80, 3–4 and 8–38 kg NPK ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, respectively, is added into the soil. The higher concentration of N in the foliage of N in the foliage of all the hedgerow species might be due to fixation of atmospheric N₂. In the mineralization process of organic matter and subsequent accumulation in the foliage, thus contour hedgerow provides an option for farming on the hill slopes on a sustainable basis. The growing of nitrogen-fixing hedge species on the field bunds helps in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and reduces the leaching losses of mineral nitrogen. Their vigorous root system mobilizes phosphorus, potassium and other trace elements. Decomposition of organic matter through leaf litter of hedge species improves the water-holding capacity of soils and other physical properties (Laxminarayan et al. 2006).

16.5 Promotion of Crop Varieties for Eastern Himalayan Agroclimatic Condition

In Nagaland, rainfed farming is prominent, and therefore second cropping is very much difficult under these circumstances. The soil is having very poor nutrient and residual moisture retention capacity. A field experiment was carried out in maize rabi season under moisture stress condition with agronomic management practices like straw mulching, where a total of 45 maize germplasms were screened to assess the best suitable line in terms of higher production potential and results revealed that maximum grain yield was recorded with maize cv. RCM-75 (3200 kg ha⁻¹). This conclusion is based on 2 years of the experimentation, so it may be recommended for commercial cultivation in moisture stress condition of Nagaland (Kumar et al. 2016a, b). Another experiment was carried out to assess the performance of rabi maize cultivars on production potential in climate change condition, and results revealed that maize cv. RCM-75 that was grown with application of RDF + FYM + lime + mulching recorded the maximum yield attributes and yield. This is due to the combined effect of the treatment which minimizes the moisture loss and provides better soil health and also due to genetic potential of the varieties (Annual Report 2012–2013).

Most of the interventions were made in remote villages of Nagaland, where modern facilities of agriculture are not available. Under such backdrop, increasing even 1 kg of yield might help these downtrodden farmers. For increasing crop production and family income, improved technologies, viz. suitable high-yielding varieties, scientific management practices and rainwater-harvesting facilities, were introduced and popularized. For increasing crop production and family income, rice-maize, rice-linseed/toria and rice-mustard-mung bean cropping systems with improved varieties of rice (SARS-1, 2, 5; Bhalum-1, 2, 3 for upland and Shasarang, RCM-9,11 and IET-16363 for lowland), maize (RCM-76, 75; DA-61), linseed (Sweta and Parvati) and soybean (JS-335 and Bragg] and modern agro-techniques were introduced. The improved varieties and technologies so adopted by the farmers have increased the overall productivity in the range of 85–280 % (Table 16.13). The continuity of these technologies will further increase the production and productivity of agriculture and allied components as the farmers are by now fully empowered with the required skill, training and motivation (Chatterjee et al. 2012; Deka et al. 2013).

Table 16.13 Productivity enhancement of various crops across the state

16.6 Strategies to Adopt Improved Agricultural Technology for Augmenting Food Security

A number of awareness programmes on farm training, exposure visit, field day and method and result demonstration on improved technologies at progressive farmers’ field were conducted to upgrade the knowledge and skill of the farmers. Further, several trainings on soft skill development for farm women were conducted to engage in income-generating activities. Besides regular technical inputs on agricultural operation, ~28 specific training-cum-demonstrations were organized on income-generating activities, i.e. weaving-cum-sewing, beekeeping and honey box making, for village women, unemployed youth and elders. A technology is blind if it is not adopted by the farming community. Around 20 improved technologies were introduced at adopted villages in the project site. Out of 20 technologies, eight technologies were well accepted by the villagers in an area of >500 ha, which they can continue even after completion of the project.

These technologies improved the farm income by~ 40 to 74.5 % and also generated annual employment of ~ 200 man-days per family. Bench terrace was constructed, where land was steeper than 16 % and slope and depth of soil was good enough (Fig. 16.11). The process consists of transforming relatively steep land into a series of nearly level steps across the slope, and the outward edges were supported by stones and wooden log. All the terraces were made at a vertical interval of 1 m keeping intact the topmost soil there. Irrigation channels were prepared to divert water from the stream. For nutrient management, a thick row of hedgerow species like Tephrosia candida and Crotalaria spp. was planted, and green biomass was mulched into the terraces for soil fertility management (Sahoo et al. 2012a; Deka et al. 2013).

Fig. 16.11

Terrace construction for demonstration of settled cultivation in Mon

16.7 Future Prospective

• Jhum improvement through building upon indigenous conservation practices along with development of improved varieties of crops, fruits and vegetables and management practices to improve the productivity of jhum farming system at least by 50 % from the present level.

• Setting up of an independent regional resource centre on shifting cultivation involving various stakeholders to share the knowledge, information and dissemination of technology.

• Available high-yielding altitude-specific varieties of crops should be tested in all the districts of Nagaland.

• Intensification of improved jhum cultivation and improved fallow management involving physical and biological practices.

• Improvement of existing and indigenous farm implements and tools to reduce the drudgery and increased efficiency of jhumias.

• Demonstration of site-specific improved agroforestry-/horticulture-/livestock-based integrated farming system models for jhum improvement.

• Frequent interface meeting of the State Department of Agriculture/Horticulture/Veterinary/Soil and Water Conservation/Irrigation/Forestry/Fishery, KVKs, ATMA, Research Institutes and NGOs at district/block level to take stock of the situation and discuss various options/development programmes on jhum.

• Making available the required quantity of quality seeds, planting materials and bio-fertilizers in time and place to the farmers.

• Appropriate soil and water conservation measures including water harvesting should be encouraged in jhum areas on priority basis for sustainable production.

• Since jhum is indispensable, synergy among the departments/research institutes/universities for convergence of available programmes (RKVY, MNREGS, NWDPRA, HTM MM-2) in a holistic manner should be taken up for improvement of the existing systems.

• Strengthening the existing government policy and act on jhum regulation and forest policy involving local people/village development council without any prejudice.

• Organizing frequent awareness programmes in local language.

16.8 Conclusions

The shifting cultivation (jhum) is the mainstay of traditional agriculture in the eastern Himalayan region. Considering its association with tribal livelihood prospective, approaches were implemented to strengthen the existing cultivation practice instead of imposing modern intervention. Adoption of site-specific agro-based interventions has proved to be beneficial in augmenting productivity of major crops and livestock, thus ensuring more income, employment and food security. Therefore, the success achieved in our study areas located in the remote part of Nagaland could be a model for future policy making for sustainable development in wider coverage and assured development in the vast eastern Himalayan region.