Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: What Legacy for the New ICC Prosecutor?

Bracq, Natacha

doi:10.1007/978-94-6265-555-3_9

Natacha Bracq⁵

383 Accesses

Abstract

Sexual violence has always been used as an instrument of violence and a weapon during armed conflicts. Yet sexual and gender-based crimes (SGBC) were absent from instruments of international criminal law until very recently and charges are seldom brought in international criminal courts. In the 1990s, the Statutes and jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda laid the foundation for the recognition of SGBC in international criminal law. Their jurisprudence and lessons learned were incorporated into the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC or the court) which has been presented as one of the most developed frameworks for gender justice. With a new Prosecutor coming into office in 2021, an assessment of the first decades of SGBC investigations, prosecutions, and adjudications is necessary to gauge the scope of the task left to be accomplished by the selected candidate. This chapter examines the efforts towards the investigation, prosecution, and adjudication of such crimes, with a particular focus on the ICC. It highlights that, despite providing one of the most advanced legal frameworks, the court still struggles to effectively address such crimes and continues to repeat the errors of the past. The chapter identifies promising and disappointing outcomes by looking at the ICC’s case law and exploring the developments undertaken under the leadership of the last two Prosecutors: from the silence of the Lubanga case to the recent changes in the ICC’s practice, including in the Al Hassan case.

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Notes

1.
Dallman 2009, p. 1; Lupig 2009, p. 17; Ginn 2013, p. 567; Uhlířová 2019, p. 83.
2.
Copelon 2000, p. 220. See also Mannix 2014, p. 7; Grey 2019b, n 5.
3.
Copelon 2000, p. 220; Ginn 2013, pp. 567–568; Orentlicher 2020, p. 97.
4.
Grey 2019b, p. 2.
5.
Lupig 2009, p. 3.
6.
Mannix 2014, pp. 7, 8.
7.
Phelps 2006, p. 500.
8.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 103.
9.
The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud , The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Muhammad Harun ("Ahmad Harun") and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman ("Ali Kushayb"), The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo and The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo and Charles Blé Goudé.
10.
The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo and The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo and Charles Blé Goudé.
11.
See The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda. It should be noted that four cases involving SGBV charges are still pending to date: The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Muhammad Harun (“Ahmad Harun”) and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (“Ali Kushayb”).
12.
See Uhlířová 2019, p. 103.
13.
Due to space constraints, reparations will not be addressed in this chapter.
14.
See also Oosterveld 2005, p. 119.
15.
Grey 2019b, p. 305.
16.
Seelinger et al. 2011, p. 2; Grey 2019b, p. 72.
17.
Charter of the International Military Tribunal annexed to the London Agreement, opened for signature (8 August 1945), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 82, no. 280, Article 6 (London Charter); Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, opened for signature (19 January 1946 as amended 26 April 1946), Treaties and Other International Acts Series, vol. 1589, Article 5 (Tokyo Charter).
18.
Lupig 2009, p. 9; Hayes 2013, fn 1.
19.
Grey 2019b, p. 76.
20.
Dallman 2009, p. 3. For more details, see Askin 2003, p. 301; Lupig 2009, pp. 6–12; Grey 2019b, p. 76.
21.
Allied Control Council No. 10, Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes Against the Peace and Against Humanity, 20 December 1945, Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany. See Grey 2019b, p. 72.
22.
Grey 2019b, p. 76.
23.
Orentlicher 2020, p. 100. See also Viseur Sellers 2008.
24.
For more details, see Lupig 2009, pp. 6–12; Grey 2019b, p. 76; Orentlicher 2020, pp. 97–98.
25.
Grey 2019b, p. 76.
26.
Copelon 2000, p. 217; Grey 2019b, p. 77; Orentlicher 2020, pp. 23, 99.
27.
Phelps 2006, p. 500.
28.
Meron 1993, p. 425.
29.
Ginn 2013, pp. 570–571.
30.
Meron 1993, p. 425.
31.
Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, adopted (25 May 1993 as amended 7 July 2009), Article 5 (g) (ICTY Statute); Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, adopted (8 November 1994 as amended 16 December 2009), Article 3 (g) (ICTR Statute).
32.
ICTR Statute, Article 4(e).
33.
Grey 2019b, p. 75.
34.
Lupig 2009, p. 14; Ginn 2013, p. 574.
35.
Ginn 2013, p. 574.
36.
Ibid., p. 568. See also Seelinger et al. 2011, p. 2.
37.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T, para 731.
38.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac et al, Judgment, 22 February 2001, IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23/1-T, para 745 (Foča case).
39.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Kvočka et al, Judgment, 2 November 2001, ICTY-IT-98-30/1-T, paras 25 and 33.
40.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Dragoljub Kunarac et al, Judgment, 22 February 2001, IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23/1-T, para 655.
41.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Mucić et al, Judgment, 16 November 1998, IT-96-21-T, para 496 (Čelebići case).
42.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T, para 10A.
43.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Mucić et al, Judgment, 16 November 1998, IT-96-21-T, para 1066; ICTY, The Prosecutor v Furundžija, Judgment, 21 July 2000, ICTY-IT-95-17/-A, paras 210–272.
44.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 90. See also Lupig 2009, pp. 16–17; Jarvis 2016, p. 109.
45.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 88.
46.
See ICTY, The Prosecutor v Mucić et al, Judgment, 16 November 1998, IT-96-21-T. See also Seelinger et al. 2011, p. 3.
47.
ICTY (undated) www.icty.org/en/features/crimes-sexual-violence/landmark-cases. Accessed 12 January 2021.
48.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997, ICTY-IT-94-1-T, para 45.
49.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T, paras 733–734 and 597.
50.
SCSL, The Prosecutor v Brima, Kamara and Kanu, Appeal Judgment, 22 February 2008, SCSL-2004-16-A, paras 186, 196, 202.
51.
Oosterveld 2016.
52.
See Ginn 2013, p. 575; Grey 2019b, p. 81.
53.
Grey 2019b, p. 75.
54.
Ginn 2013, p. 569.
55.
Jarvis and Vigneswaran 2016, pp. 36–37, 39.
56.
Ibid., p. 36.
57.
Ibid., p. 38.
58.
Jarvis 2016, p. 107.
59.
Grey 2019b, pp. 69–98.
60.
Ibid., p. 93.
61.
Ibid., pp. 93–94.
62.
See ibid., pp. 94–95. See also Viseur Sellers 2008.
63.
Jarvis and Vigneswaran 2016, pp. 53–55.
64.
Ibid., pp. 55–60. See also Ginn 2013, pp. 585–587.
65.
Ibid., pp. 61–62.
66.
Ibid., pp. 64–65. See also Ginn 2013, pp. 585, 587–589.
67.
Jarvis and Vigneswaran 2016, pp. 65–67.
68.
See for example Oosterveld 2005.
69.
Mwangi 2017, p. 26. See also Grey 2019b, p. 82.
70.
Grey 2019b, p. 82.
71.
Oosterveld 2005, p. 122; Grey 2019b, p. 84.
72.
Hayes 2013, p. 3. See also Oosterveld 2005, p. 120.
73.
Hayes 2013, p. 2.
74.
Ibid., p. 3.
75.
Copelon 2000, p. 231.
76.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, opened for signature (17 July 1998), United Nations Treaty Collection, entered into force (1 July 2002) (Rome Statute). https://www.icc-cpi.int/resource-library/documents/rs-eng.pdf. Accessed 12 January 2021.
77.
Dallman 2009, p. 5.
78.
See O’Connell 2010, p. 70.
79.
Chappell 2016. See also Chappell and Durbach 2014, p. 534.
80.
Grey 2019b, p. 2.
81.
Hayes 2013, p. 4.
82.
SGBC are listed under Rome Statute, arts 7(1)(g), 8(2)(b)(xxii), and 8(2)(e)(vi). See Chappell 2014a, p. 579. For more details on each crime, see Lupig 2009, pp. 27–48.
83.
Rome Statute, Article 7(1)(h).
84.
ICC, Rome Statute, Elements of Crimes, adopted (17 July 1998), UN Doc A/CONF.183/9 (Elements of Crimes) Article 6(b) n 3.
85.
MacKinnon 2008, p. 102.
86.
Lupig 2009, p. 40.
87.
Rome Statute, Article 21(3).
88.
ICC, Rules of Procedure and Evidence, adopted (9 September 2002), ICC-ASP/1/3 (RPE).
89.
ICC, Regulations of the Registry, approved (6 March 2006), ICC-BD/03-03-13.
90.
SáCouto and Cleary 2009, p. 341 (footnote omitted).
91.
Ibid., p. 340.
92.
Rome Statute, Article 54 (1)(b).
93.
Rome Statute, Article 68(1). See also RPE, rules 16(1)(d), 17(2)(a)(iv) and (b)(iii), 86, 88.
94.
RPE, rules 63(4), 70, 71, 72, 112(4).
95.
See for example Regulations of the Registry, regulations 89, 91, 94 bis.
96.
Rome Statute, Article 43(6).
97.
ICC (2014), para 112. www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/OTP-Policy-Paper-on-Sexual-and-Gender-Based-Crimes--June-2014.pdf. Accessed 12 January 2021.
98.
See Uhlířová 2019, pp. 84–85.
99.
ICC (2014), para 6. www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/OTP-Policy-Paper-on-Sexual-and-Gender-Based-Crimes--June-2014.pdf. Accessed 12 January 2021.
100.
Ibid., para 37.
101.
Ibid., para 14.
102.
Ibid., para 37.
103.
ICC (undated), Strategic Plans (2012–2015), (2016–2018) and (2019–2021). https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/otp/otp-policies. Accessed 12 January 2021.
104.
Grey 2019b, pp. 261–262.
105.
Ibid., pp. 263–264.
106.
This number excludes the eleven cases where the accused are not in the ICC’s custody or are dead (The Prosecutor v Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi, The Prosecutor v Sylvestre Mudacumura, The Prosecutor v Mahmoud Mustafa Busayf Al-Werfalli, The Prosecutor v Abdallah Banda Abakaer Nourain, The Prosecutor v Walter Osapiri Barasa, The Prosecutor v Al-Tuhamy Mohamed Khaled, The Prosecutor v Joseph Kony and Vincent Otti, The Prosecutor v Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Muhammad Harun ("Ahmad Harun"), The Prosecutor v Abdel Raheem Muhammad Hussein, The Prosecutor v Simone Gbagbo), as well as the Article 70 procedures in The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo et al, The Prosecutor v Philip Kipkoech Bett, and The Prosecutor v Paul Gicheru.
107.
The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Muhammad Harun ("Ahmad Harun") and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman ("Ali Kushayb"), The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo and The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo and Charles Blé Goudé.
108.
For the full list, see Grey 2019b, p. 260.
109.
See Sect. 9.2.
110.
This chapter does not address the issue of reparations.
111.
Hayes 2013, p. 32. See for example The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo or The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui.
112.
Grey 2019b, p. 305.
113.
Hayes 2013, p. 4.
114.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo¸ Decision on Sentence Pursuant to Article 76 of the Statute, 10 July 2012, ICC01/04-01/06-2901; ICC, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, Summary of the Judgment and Sentence, 27 September 2016, ICC-01/12-01/15.
115.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 92.
116.
Grey 2019b, p. 129.
117.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Document Containing the Charges, Article 61(3)(a)), 28 August 2006, ICC-01/04-01/06.
118.
SáCouto and Cleary 2009, pp. 342–343; Chappell 2014b, p. 187; Uhlířová 2019, p. 93; Grey 2019b, p. 130.
119.
UN News (2010) https://news.un.org/en/story/2010/04/336662. Accessed 12 January 2021.
120.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 93. See also Mwangi 2017, pp. 36–37.
121.
Chappell 2014b, p. 187.
122.
Mwangi 2017, p. 38.
123.
Chappell 2014b, p. 187 citing Yates 2009.
124.
Glassborow 2008. http://iwpr.net/report-news/icc-investigative-strategy-under-fire: Accessed 12 January 2021. See also Mwangi 2017, pp. 35–36.
125.
Chappell 2014b, p. 187; Uhlířová 2019, p. 93.
126.
Mwangi 2017, p. 37 citing Schabas 2008, p. 744.
127.
SáCouto and Cleary 2009, p. 343 (footnote omitted).
128.
Chappell 2014b, p. 187; Uhlířová 2019, p. 93.
129.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Decision on Request pursuant to Rule 103 (1) of the Statute, 26 September 2006, ICC-01/04-01/06-480 and ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment on the appeals of Mr Lubanga Dyilo and the Prosecutor against the Decision of Trial Chamber I of 14 July 2009 entitled "Decision giving notice to the parties and participants that the legal characterisation of the facts may be subject to change, 17 December 2009, ICC-01/04-01/06-2205. See also Mwangi 2017, pp. 42–43; Chappell 2014b, pp. 186–188; Grey 2019b, pp. 133, 136.
130.
ICC; The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Submission of the Observations of the Special Representative of the Secretary General of the United Nations for Children and Armed Conflict pursuant to Rule 103 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 18 March 2008, ICC-01/04-01/06-1229. See also Grey 2019b, pp. 133–134.
131.
Chappell 2014b, pp. 191–192; Grey 2019b, p. 136.
132.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Transcript, 25 August 201, ICC-01/04-01/06, pp. 53, 54. See also Hayes 2013, p. 20; Grey 2019b, p. 138.
133.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 05 April 2012, ICC-01/04-01/06-2842.
134.
Ibid., para 896.
135.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Decision on Sentence Pursuant to Article 76 of the Statute, 10 July 2012, ICC01/04-01/06-2901, para 60.
136.
Ibid., para 75.
137.
See Sect. 9.2.
138.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Dragan Nikolić (IT-94-2).
139.
Jarvis and Vigneswaran 2016, p. 47.
140.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Dragan Nikolić, Initial Indictment, 4 November 1994, IT-94-2-I.
141.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Dragan Nikolić, Review of Indictment Pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 20 October 1995, IT-94-2-R61, para 33.
142.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Dragan Nikolić, First Amended Indictment, 12 February 1999, IT-94-2-I. See also Jarvis and Vigneswaran 2016, p. 48.
143.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Lukić Milan & Lukić Sredoje (IT-98-32/1).
144.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Lukić Milan & Lukić Sredoje, Second Amended Indictment, 27 February 2006, IT-98-32/1.
145.
SáCouto and Cleary 2009, p. 352; Ginn 2013, p. 586.
146.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Lukić Milan & Lukić Sredoje, Decision on Prosecution Motion Seeking Leave To Amend the Second Amended Indictment and on Prosecution Motion To Include U.N. Security Council Resolution 1820 (2008) as Additional Supporting Material to Proposed Third Amended Indictment as Well as on Milan Lukić’s Request for Reconsideration on Certification of the Pre-Trial Judges Order of 19 June 2008, 8 July 2008, IT-98-32/1-PT, paras 12 and 60 (citing Prosecution Motion Seeking Leave To Amend the Second Amended Indictment, 16 June 2008, IT-98-32/1-PT, para 14 (filed confidentially)).
147.
Hayes 2013, p. 23.
148.
Grey 2019b, pp. 250–251.
149.
Al-Mahdi fully accepted his individual criminal responsibility and waived his right to appeal the conviction or sentence. ICC, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, Judgment and Sentence, 27 September 2016, ICC-01/12-01/15-171.
150.
Uhlířová 2019, pp. 95–96.
151.
FIDH 2015; FIDH 2019, para 104.
152.
ICC, Office of the Prosecutor, ‘Situation in Mali—Article 53(1) Report’, 16 January 2013, paras 118–119, 168.
153.
Uhlířová 2019, pp. 95–96.
154.
See Sect. 9.4.1. We will see however that despite promising steps, two of the cases in the situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, ended with a rather disappointing outcome. Al Hassan’s trial is still ongoing at the time of writing.
155.
Apart from the case of The Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, all the other cases started under the leadership of Fatou Bensouda contain SGBC charges (The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona and The Prosecutor v Ahmad Muhammad Harun ("Ahmad Harun") and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman ("Ali Kushayb")). It should be noted that SGBV were also included in the charges in several cases during Luis Moreno Ocampo’s mandate, in the cases of The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo and Charles Blé Goudé, and The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana. We will see that these cases have however suffered from a lack of evidence which has led to the collapse of the SGBV charges or the case in general.
156.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Warrant of Arrest, 24 August 2006, ICC-01/04-02/06-2-tENG.
157.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Public redacted version - Decision on the Prosecutor's Application under Article 58, 13 July 2012, ICC-01/04-02/06-36-Red. See also Grey 2019b, p. 142.
158.
Grey 2019b, p. 145.
159.
Ibid., p. 146.
160.
He was also found guilty of the crimes against humanity of murder and attempted murder, persecution, forcible transfer, and deportation and the war crimes of murder and attempted murder, intentionally directing attacks against civilians, ordering the displacement of the civilian population, conscripting and enlisting children under the age of 15 years into an armed group and using them to participate actively in hostilities, intentionally directing attacks against protected objects, and destroying the adversary’s property.
161.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Judgement, 9 July 2019, ICC-01/04-02/06, para 1199.
162.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 100.
163.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Prosecution’s submission of document containing the charges and the list of evidence, 10 January 2014, ICC-01/04-02/06-203-AnxA, Counts 4-6.
164.
See ICC, The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Transcript of Hearing, 13 February 2014, ICC-01/04-02/06-T-10-RED-ENG, p. 27, lines 5–25; Decision on the Defence’s challenge to the jurisdiction of the Court in respect of Counts 6 and 9, 9 October 2015, ICC-01/04-02/06-892; Appeal on behalf of Mr Ntaganda against Trial Chamber VI’s ‘Decision on the Defence’s challenge to the jurisdiction’, 4 January 2017, ICC-01/04-02/06-1707; Judgment on the appeal of Mr Ntaganda against the “Second decision on the Defence’s challenge to the jurisdiction of the Court in respect of Counts 6 and 9”, 15 June 2017, ICC-01/04-02/06 OA5.
165.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Appeal on behalf of Mr Ntaganda against Trial Chamber VI’s ‘Decision on the Defence’s challenge to the jurisdiction’, 4 January 2017, ICC-01/04-02/06-1707, paras 51–53.
166.
Ibid., para 47.
167.
Ibid., para 51.
168.
See also Uhlířová 2019, p. 99.
169.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Bosco Ntaganda, Judgment on the appeal of Mr Ntaganda against the “Second decision on the Defence’s challenge to the jurisdiction of the Court in respect of Counts 6 and 9”, 15 June 2017, ICC-01/04-02/06 OA5, para 2.
170.
See McDermott 2017; Svaček 2017; Heller 2017.
171.
Heller 2017.
172.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 5 April 2012, ICC-01/04-01/06-2842, para 628.
173.
Ibid.
174.
Urban 2012.
175.
The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Public redacted Judgment on the appeal of Mr Thomas Lubanga Dyilo against his conviction, 1 December 2014, ICC-01/04-01/06-3121-Red, para 324.
176.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Judgment Pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 5 April 2012, ICC-01/04-01/06-2842, para 340.
177.
Ibid., para 335.
178.
See for example Yuvaraj 2016; Harwood 2014.
179.
ICC, Situation in Uganda, Warrant of Arrest for Dominic Ongwen, 09 July 2005, ICC-02/04-01/05-57.
180.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Decision on the confirmation of charges against Dominic Ongwen, 23 March 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15-422-Red.
181.
Ibid., paras 117, 124.
182.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Decision on the confirmation of charges against Dominic Ongwen, 23 March 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15-422-red.
183.
De Vos 2016a.
184.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Trial Judgement, 4 February 2021ICC-02/04-01/15-1762-Red. The verdict may still be appealed by either party.
185.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 98.
186.
De Vos 2016a; Minkova 2021.
187.
See below Sect. 9.5.1.
188.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga, Decision on the confirmation of charges, 14 October 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07-717, para 431.
189.
See SCSL, The Prosecutor v Sesay, Kallon and Gbao, Appeal Judgement, 26 October 2009, SCSL-04-15-A, paras 735–737; SCSL, The Prosecutor v Brima, Kamara and Kanu, Appeal Judgment, 22 February 2008, SCSL-2004-16-A, para 196.
190.
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Case 002, Closing Order, 15 September 2010, 002/19-09-2007-ECCC-OCIJ, paras 1442–1443.
191.
SCSL, The Prosecutor v Brima, Kamara and Kanu, Trial Judgment, 20 June 2007, SCSL-2004-16-T, paras 697, 713.
192.
SCSL, The Prosecutor v Brima, Kamara and Kanu, Appeal Judgment, 22 February 2008, SCSL-2004-16-A, paras 186, 196.
193.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Prosecution’s Pre-Trial Brief, 6 September 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15, paras 510–511.
194.
The Prosecutor v Dominic Ongwen, Decision on the confirmation of charges against Dominic Ongwen, 23 March 2016, ICC-02/04-01/15-422-Red, para 95.
195.
Oosterveld 2016.
196.
De Vos 2016a.
197.
Ibid., Grey 2019b, p. 175.
198.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Version publique expurgée de la “Version amendée et corrigée du Document contenant les charges contre M. Al HASSAN Ag ABDOUL AZIZ Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud”, 2 July 2019, ICC-01/12-01/18-335-Corr-Red, para 1058. He was charged with crimes against humanity (torture, rape, sexual slavery, persecution on religious and gender grounds and other inhumane acts including forced marriages) and war crimes (torture, cruel treatment, rape, sexual slavery, outrage on personal dignity, imposition of a sentence by an improper court, and attacking religious buildings).
199.
Ibid., paras 1075 et seq.
200.
Chertoff 2017, p. 1071.
201.
Kersten 2020.
202.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, Prosecution’s document containing the charges submitted pursuant to Article 61(3) of the Statute, 3 August 2011, ICC-01/04-01/10-330-Conf-AnxA.
203.
Chertoff 2017, p. 1093.
204.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 16 December 2011, ICC-01/04-01/ 10-465-Red, paras 293–303.
205.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Version publique expurgée de la “Version amendée et corrigée du Document contenant les charges contre M. Al HASSAN Ag ABDOUL AZIZ Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud”, 2 July 2019, ICC-01/12-01/18-335-Corr-Red, para 1091 (free translation).
206.
Grey 2019a.
207.
Torture, inhumane acts, cruel treatment, outrages upon personal dignity, passing of sentences without previous judgement pronounced by a regularly constituted court, other inhumane acts in the form of forced marriages, sexual slavery, rape, and persecution.
208.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Public redacted version of “Prosecution Request for corrections and amendments concerning the Confirmation Decision”, 30 January 2020, ICC-01/12-01/18-568-Conf, 17 February 2020, ICC-01/12-01/18-568-Red, para 1.
209.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment on the appeal of Mr. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo against Trial Chamber III’s “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute”, 08 June 2018, ICC-01/05-01/08-3636-Red, para 115.
210.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Version publique expurgée du Rectificatif de la Décision portant modification des charges confirmées le 30 septembre 2019 à l’encontre d’Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, 23 avril 2020, ICC-01/12-01/18-767-Conf, 08 May 2020, ICC-01/12-01/18-767-Corr-Red. More generally, the Chamber granted the request for the charges of crime against humanity: sexual slavery, rape, persecution, and other inhuman acts; as well as the following charges of war crimes: cruel treatment, sexual slavery, rape, outrages upon personal dignity and passing of sentences without previous judgement.
211.
Grey et al. 2020.
212.
Hayes 2013, p. 32.
213.
SáCouto and Cleary 2009, p. 353.
214.
Oosterveld 2005, p. 127.
215.
Jarvis and Vigneswaran 2016, p. 64.
216.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Prlić et al, Trial Judgment, 29 May 2013, ICTY-04-74-T, vol. 3, para 778.
217.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997, ICTY-IT-94-1-T, para 427.
218.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Mrkšić, Judgement, 27 September 2007, IT-95-13/1-I, paras 519–522. See also Ginn 2013, p. 588.
219.
See Sect. 9.5.
220.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, Warrant of Arrest for Callixte Mbarushimana, 11 October 2010, ICC-01/04-01/10.
221.
Hayes 2013, p. 38; Grey 2019b, p. 160.
222.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Mbarushimana, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 16 December 2011, ICC-01/04-01/ 10-465-Red.
223.
Ibid., para 111.
224.
Ibid., para 110.
225.
Ibid., para 112.
226.
Ibid., para 113.
227.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the Prosecutor’s Application for Summonses to Appear for Francis Kirimi Muthaura, Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali, 8 March 2011, ICC-01/09-02/11-1, para 26.
228.
Ibid.
229.
Ibid., paras 31–32.
230.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 23 January 2012, ICC-01/09-02/11-382, para 255.
231.
Ibid., para 259.
232.
Ibid.
233.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the withdrawal of charges against Mr. Muthaura, 18 March 2013, ICC-01/09-02/11-696.
234.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta, Decision on Prosecution's applications for a finding of non-compliance pursuant to Article 87(7) and for an adjournment of the provisional trial date, 31 March 2014, ICC-01/09-02/11-908.
235.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Francis Kirimi Muthaura and Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta, Prosecution notification of withdrawal of the charges against Francis Kirimi Muthaura, 11 March 2013, ICC-01/09-02/11-687, para 10; The Prosecutor v Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta, Notice of withdrawal of the charges against Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta, 5 December 2014, ICC-O1/09-02111-983, para 2.
236.
Hayes 2013, pp. 36–37.
237.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo, Decision on the confirmation of charges against Laurent Gbagbo, 12 June 2014, ICC-02/11-01/11-656-Red, para 17. Other forms of sexual violence, which were originally mentioned in the arrest warrant were removed. See ICC, The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo, Warrant of Arrest For Laurent Koudou Gbagbo, 23 November 2011, ICC-02/11-01/11-1, para 7.
238.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo, Decision adjourning the hearing on the confirmation of charges pursuant to Article 61(7)(c)(i) of the Rome Statute, 3 June 2013, ICC-02/11-01/11-432.
239.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo, Decision on the Prosecutor’s Application Pursuant to Article 58 for a Warrant of Arrest Against Laurent Koudou Gbagbo, 30 November 2011, ICC-02/11-01/11, para 59.
240.
Ibid.
241.
Ibid., para 36.
242.
Ibid.
243.
Ibid., para 44.
244.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Laurent Gbagbo and Charles Blé Goudé, Reasons for oral decision of 15 January 2019 on the Requête de la Défense de Laurent Gbagbo afin qu'un jugement d'acquittement portant sur toutes les charges soit prononcé en faveur de Laurent Gbagbo et que sa mise en liberté immédiate soit ordonnée), 16 July 2019, ICC-02/11-01/15-1263, para 28.
245.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Public redacted version of “Document Containing the Charges”, ICC-01-14/01-18-282-Conf-AnxB1, 19 August 2019, 18 September 2019, ICC-01/14-01/18-282-AnxB1-Red.
246.
Ibid.
247.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Public Redacted Version of ‘Decision on the confirmation of charges against Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona’, 20 December 2019, corrected on 14 May 2020, ICC-01/14-01/18-403-Red-Corr.
248.
Ibid., p. 106. Only 30 out of the 111 total charges against Ngaïssona were confirmed.
249.
Ibid., para 59.
250.
Ibid., para 107.
251.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Public Redacted Version of “Prosecution’s Request to Amend Charges pursuant to Article 61(9) and for Correction of the Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, and Notice of Intention to Add Additional Charges (ICC-01/14-01/18-XXX-Conf)”, 31 March 2020, ICC-01/14-01/18-468-Red.
252.
Ibid., paras 1–2.
253.
Ibid., para 9.
254.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Decision on the ‘Prosecution’s Request to Amend Charges pursuant to Article 61(9) and for Correction of the Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, and Notice of Intention to Add Additional Charges’, 14 May 2020, ICC-01/14-01/18-517, para 31.
255.
Ibid.
256.
Ibid., paras 32–33.
257.
Ibid., para 16.
258.
See Sect. 9.4.2.
259.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Version publique expurgée du Rectificatif de la Décision portant modification des charges confirmées le 30 septembre 2019 à l’encontre d’Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, 23 avril 2020, ICC-01/12-01/18-767-Conf, 08 May 2020, ICC-01/12-01/18-767-Corr-Red, para 33.
260.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Public Redacted Version of “Prosecution’s Request to Amend Charges pursuant to Article 61(9) and for Correction of the Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, and Notice of Intention to Add Additional Charges (ICC-01/14-01/18-XXX-Conf)”, 31 March 2020, ICC-01/14-01/18-468-Red, para 4.
261.
Ibid., para 13.
262.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Alfred Yekatom and Patrice-Edouard Ngaïssona, Decision on the ‘Prosecution’s Request to Amend Charges pursuant to Article 61(9) and for Correction of the Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, and Notice of Intention to Add Additional Charges’, 14 May 2020, ICC-01/14-01/18-517, para 21.
263.
Ginn 2013, p. 588.
264.
Hayes 2013, p. 32.
265.
Ibid.
266.
Ibid., p. 41.
267.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 97, citing Chappell.
268.
Hayes 2013, p. 41.
269.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 97; citing Chappell.
270.
See Sect. 9.4.2.
271.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the Prosecutor’s Application for Summonses to Appear for Francis Kirimi Muthaura, Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali, 8 March 2011, ICC-01/09-02/11-1, para 27. ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute, 23 January 2012, ICC-01/09-02/11-382-Red, paras 264–266.
272.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the Prosecutor’s Application for Summonses to Appear for Francis Kirimi Muthaura, Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali, 8 March 2011, ICC-01/09-02/11-1, para 27. ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute, 23 January 2012, ICC-01/09-02/11-382-Red, para 27.
273.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Muthaura et al, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute, 23 January 2012, ICC-01/09-02/11-382-Red, para 264.
274.
Ibid., para 265.
275.
Ibid., para 266.
276.
Grey 2019b, p. 212.
277.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Kvočka et al, Judgment, 2 November 2001, ICTY-IT-98-30/1-T, n 343. See also ICTY, The Prosecutor v Brđanin, Judgment, 1 September 2004, IT-99-36, paras 517–518 (a women’s breast being cut off with a knife was characterised as a sexual assault); ICTY, Prosecutor v Tadić, Appeals Judgment, 15 July 1999, IT-94-1-A, para 198 (similar for a victim who was compelled sexually to mutilate another victim by biting off one of his testicles).
278.
SCSL, The Prosecutor v Sesay, Kallon and Gbao, Judgement, March 2009, SCSL-04-15-T, para 1208.
279.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 94. See also Hayes 2013, pp. 43–44; Jurasz 2014, p. 5.
280.
Jurasz 2014, p. 6.
281.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 94 (footnote omitted).
282.
Hayes 2013, p. 45.
283.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 21 March 2016, ICC-01/05-01/08-3343.
284.
Ibid., paras 633, 637.
285.
Ibid., para 638.
286.
Ibid., para 727.
287.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment on the appeal of Mr Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo against Trial Chamber III’s “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute”, 8 June 2018, ICC-01/05-01/08-3636-Red.
288.
Mwangi 2017, p. 49, citing Fatou Bensouda.
289.
Grey 2019b, p. 192.
290.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Decision on the Prosecutor’s Application for a Warrant of Arrest Against Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, 10 June 2008, ICC-01/05-01/08-14, para 40.
291.
Uhlířová 2019, p. 97.
292.
The Prosecutor v Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998, ICTR-96-4-T, para 688.
293.
Hayes 2013, fn 134.
294.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Decision Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, 15 June 2009, ICC-01/05-01/08, paras 204–205.
295.
Hayes 2013, p. 42.
296.
Carson 2012.
297.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Decision Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, 15 June 2009, ICC-01/05-01/08, paras 204–205.
298.
Ibid., para 312.
299.
Mwangi 2017, pp. 52–53.
300.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment on the appeal of Mr Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo against Trial Chamber III’s “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute”, 8 June 2018, ICC-01/05-01/08-3636-Red.
301.
Ibid., paras 189–194.
302.
Ibid., para 171.
303.
SáCouto and Viseur Sellers 2019, p. 3.
304.
Ibid., p. 4.
305.
Ibid., p. 17.
306.
Ibid., p. 23. See also Grey 2019b, pp. 203–205.
307.
Mannix 2014, p. 22; McDermott 2016.
308.
De Vos 2016b.
309.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 21 March 2016, ICC-01/05-01/08-3343, para 99.
310.
Ibid., para 101.
311.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Furundžija, Judgment, 10 December 1998, ICTY-IT-95-17/1-T, paras 183–185; and ICTY, The Prosecutor v Mucić et al, Judgment, 16 November 1998, IT-96-21-T, para 1066.
312.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 21 March 2016, ICC-01/05-01/08-3343, para 102.
313.
Ibid., para 105.
314.
De Vos 2016b.
315.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 21 March 2016, ICC-01/05-01/08-3343, para 482.
316.
Grey 2019b, p. 148.
317.
Ibid., p. 156.
318.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Submission of Amended Document Containing the Charges Pursuant to Decision ICC-01/04-01/07-648, 26 June 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07-649-Anx1A.
319.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Corrigendum to the Decision on Evidentiary Scope of the Confirmation Hearing, Preventive Relocation and Disclosure under Article 67(2) of the Statute and Rule 77 of the Rules, 26 April 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07-428-Corr, para 39. See also SáCouto and Cleary 2009, pp. 343–344.
320.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Decision on Prosecution's Urgent Application for the Admission of the Evidence of Witnesses 132 and 287, 28 May 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07-523.
321.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Decision on the confirmation of charges, 30 September 2008, ICC-01/04-01/07-717, paras 211–212.
322.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute—Concurring Opinion of Judge Christine Van den Wyngaert, 20 December 2012, ICC-01/04-02/12-4.
323.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Judgment on the Prosecutor’s appeal against the decision of Trial Chamber II entitled “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute”, 7 April 2015, ICC-01/04-02/12-271-Corr.
324.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 7 March 2014, ICC-01/04-01/07-3436-tENG.
325.
Ibid., paras 999, 1023.
326.
Ibid., para 1664.
327.
Askin 2014. See also Grey 2019b, p. 272.
328.
SáCouto and Cleary 2009, p. 359.
329.
The ad hocs have for example accepted that an order, even if implicit, may be inferred from the circumstances, for other crimes such as targeting civilians. SáCouto and Cleary 2009, p. 359, citing ICTY, The Prosecutor v Galić, Judgment, 5 December 2003, IT-98-29-T, para 741.
330.
ICTY, The Prosecutor v Kajelijeli, Judgment and Sentence, 1 December 2003, ICTR-98-44A-T, para 683.
331.
Ibid., para 780.
332.
Askin 2014.
333.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 7 March 2014, ICC-01/04-01/07-3436-tENG, paras 59–74.
334.
See Mannix 2014, p. 22.
335.
Ibid., p. 23.
336.
Bassiouni 2013, p. 981, paraphrasing Santayana.
337.
Carson 2012.
338.
Hayes 2013, pp. 23, 46.
339.
ICC, Office of the Prosecutor, Report on Preliminary Examination Activities (2020), 14 December 2020, para 280 (in relation to Ukraine).
340.
ICC, Office of the Prosecutor, Report on Preliminary Examination Activities (2020), 14 December 2020, paras 254–257 (in relation to Nigeria).
341.
ICC, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Muhammad Harun (“Ahmad Harun”) and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (“Ali Kushayb”), Warrant of Arrest for Ali Kushayb, 27 April 2007, ICC-02/05-01/07-3-Corr; ICC, The Prosecutor v Ahmad Muhammad Harun ("Ahmad Harun") and Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman ("Ali Kushayb"), Public redacted version of ‘Second warrant of arrest for Ali Muhammad Ali Abd-Al-Rahman (“Ali Kushayb”)’, 16 January 2018, ICC-02/05-01/07-74- Secret-Exp, 11 June 2020, ICC-02/05-01/07-74-Red.
342.
Van Schaack 2009, p. 358.
343.
Lupig 2009, p. 4.
344.
For more information please see: International Nuremberg Principles Academy 2017.

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International Nuremberg Principles Academy Nürnberg, Nuremberg, Germany
Natacha Bracq

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Arusha, Tanzania
Takeh B. K. Sendze
Centre for African Justice, Peace and Human Rights, The Hague, The Netherlands
Adesola Adeboyejo
Doughty Street Chambers, London, UK
Howard Morrison
Centre for African Justice, Peace and Human Rights, The Hague, The Netherlands
Sophia Ugwu

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Bracq, N. (2023). Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: What Legacy for the New ICC Prosecutor?. In: Sendze, T.B.K., Adeboyejo, A., Morrison, H., Ugwu, S. (eds) Contemporary International Criminal Law Issues. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-555-3_9

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-555-3_9
Published: 29 March 2023
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Online ISBN: 978-94-6265-555-3
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Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: What Legacy for the New ICC Prosecutor?

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International Criminal Court Prosecutions of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: Challenges and Successes

Gender Justice in Multilateral Negotiations: The Case of SGBV in the Rome Statute and in the ICC

Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone: The Contribution of Transitional Justice Mechanisms to Domestic Law Reform

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