Abstract
In J.M. Coetzee’s latest fictional work, the Jesus trilogy, two refugees―a man in his early forties and a five-year-old boy―arrive in an unidentified country after travelling across an ocean. Their first two stops are Belstar, a city by the sea, and a refugee camp “in the desert” where they are given new names, Simón for the man and David for the boy. They have, like all other refugees, no memories of their past, not even of their original names or their native language, except maybe for David who can sing Johann Wolfgang Goethe’s 1782 ballad “Erlköning” in German, though he believes he is singing it in English (a misidentification that Simón also makes). The language of their host country is Spanish, which they have been learning in the refugee camp, and hence, they experience typical problems associated with language acquisition.
One can think of a life in art, schematically, in two or perhaps three stages. In the first you find, or pose for yourself, a great question. In the second you labor away at answering it. And then, if you live long enough, you come to the third stage, when the aforesaid great question begins to bore you, and you need to look elsewhere.
Paul Auster and J.M. Coetzee, Here and Now: Letters (2008–2011) (New York: Penguin Books, 2014), 88 (Coetzee to Auster, 26 September 2009).
I am most grateful to Magdalena Cámpora (Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina and CONICET) and Inmaculada Mas Álvarez (Universidade de Santiago de Compostela) for their valuable help and advice. I am also very grateful to J.M. Coetzee’s foreign rights agent Rema Dilan for her patience in answering my questions. I am especially grateful to Elena Marengo, who offered many comments and spent a great deal of time discussing problems of detail with me. In addition, I must also give special thanks to Amanda Vicent Escorihuela (Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir) for her help with library and cataloguing technicalities and César Pellicer Marco (Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir) for his help with Japanese.
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Notes
- 1.
J.M. Coetzee, The Childhood of Jesus (New York: Viking, 2013), 5.
- 2.
Coetzee, Childhood, 67; J.M. Coetzee, The Schooldays of Jesus (London: Harvill Secker, 2016), 133.
- 3.
Coetzee, Childhood, 1, 61, and 12.
- 4.
Coetzee, Childhood, 121. Interestingly, none of the aforementioned language courses, nor Esperanto or Volapük are offered.
- 5.
Coetzee, Schooldays, 33 and 35.
- 6.
Coetzee, Childhood, 21 and 106.
- 7.
Gillian Dooley, “‘A Dozy City’: Adelaide in J.M. Coetzee’s Slow Man and Amy T. Matthews’ End of the Night Girl”, in Adelaide: A Literary City, ed. Philip Butterss (Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press, 2013), 259; J.C. Kannemeyer, J.M. Coetzee: A Life in Writing, trans. Michiel Heyns (2012; Victoria: Scribe, 2013), chap. 16.
- 8.
Elleke Boehmer, Lynda Ng, and Paul Sheehan, “The World, the Text and the Author: Coetzee and Untranslatability”, European Journal of English Studies 20, no. 2 (2016): 193 and 194.
- 9.
David Attwell, J.M. Coetzee and the Life of Writing: Face-to-Face with Time (New York: Viking, 2015), 210.
- 10.
Boehmer, Ng, and Sheehan, “The World, the Text and the Author”, 195.
- 11.
J.M. Coetzee, De kinderjaren van Jezus, trans. Peter Bergsma (Amsterdam: Cossee, 2013); J.M. Coetzee, De schooldagen van Jezus, trans. Peter Bergsma (Amsterdam: Cossee, 2016); and J.M. Coetzee, La muerte de Jesús, trans. Elena Marengo (Buenos Aires: El Hilo de Ariadna; Buenos Aires and Barcelona: Penguin Random House, 2019). The “original” of The Death of Jesus has been published in May 2020.
- 12.
Rebecca L. Walkowitz, Born Translated: The Contemporary Novel in an Age of World Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015), 3.
- 13.
Walkowitz, Born Translated, 3 and 4.
- 14.
Walkowitz, Born Translated, 3.
- 15.
A key text by Coetzee on his relationships with translators is “Working with Translators”, in Translation and the Classic: Identity as Change in the History of Culture, ed. Alexandra Lianeri and Vana Zajko, 407–19 (2006; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). This essay was originally published under the title “Speaking in Tongues” in The Australian: Weekend Review, 28 January 2006.
- 16.
Walkowitz, Born Translated, 4.
- 17.
A vague reference to characters for whom Spanish is a native language, or at least a language in which they are more proficient than incoming refugees, is made only once in the trilogy: “Their neighbours have been, on one side, an old man who dodders around in his dressing gown talking to himself, and on the other a stand-offish couple who pretend not to understand the Spanish he [Simón] speaks.” (Coetzee, Childhood, 51).
- 18.
Coetzee, Childhood, 152 and 79.
- 19.
Coetzee, Childhood, 151, 154, and 204.
- 20.
Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quijote de la Mancha, ed. Francisco Rico (Barcelona: Instituto Cervantes / Crítica, 1998), 658 (Part 2, chap. 4). “‘And by any chance’, said Don Quixote, ‘does the author promise a second part?’” / “‘Yes, he does’, responded Sansón, … and so we don’t know if it will be published or not”, in Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote, trans. Edith Grossman (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 482 (Part 2, chap. 4). This exchange between Don Quixote and Carrasco includes the latter’s statement “algunos dicen: ‘Nunca segunda partes fueron buenas’” (658) / “some people say: ‘Second parts were never very good’” (482), which Coetzee uses as an epigraph for The Schooldays of Jesus, the second part of the Jesus trilogy. For the role played by Cervantes in Coetzee’s fiction, see María J. López, “Miguel de Cervantes and J.M. Coetzee: An Unacknowledged Paternity”, Journal of Literary Studies 29, no. 4 (2013): 80–97; and Fernando Galván, “Borges, Cervantes, and Coetzee, or the Fictionalisation of the Author”, European Journal of English Studies 20, no. 2 (2016): 179–91.
- 21.
Coetzee, Childhood, 140 and 30.
- 22.
For general introductions to the political uses of Hispanidad by Spanish fascists who called themselves cruzados (crusaders), see Rosa María Pardo Sanz, “Hispanoamérica en la política nacionalista, 1936–1939”, Espacio, Tiempo y Forma 5 (1992): 211–38; and Isidro Sepúlveda Muñoz, El sueño de la madre patria: hispanoamericanismo y nacionalismo (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2005).
- 23.
A case in point concerning the defence of the Spanish Empire for its mission civilisatrice as voiced in pseudo-academic discourse is María Elvira Roca Barea’s 2016 book Imperiofobia y leyenda negra, which has turned into a bestseller, with twenty-three editions and over 100,000 copies sold. José Luis Villacañas discusses the right-wing populist roots of Roca Barea’s book in his 2019 Imperiofilia. Some links between academic discourse, right-wing parties, journalists, and intellectuals need to be underlined in this regard. The journalist Arcadi Espada, a founder of the Ciutadans de Catalunya forum which gave rise to the Ciudadanos party, wrote a preface for Roca Barea’s book. The Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, in turn, has celebrated Roca Barea’s book in “Historia y ficción”, El País, 16 September 2018.
- 24.
José del Valle, “Panhispanismo e hispanofonía: breve historia de dos ideologías siamesas”, Sociolinguistic Studies 5, no. 3 (2011): 480 (my trans.).
- 25.
Derek Attridge, J.M. Coetzee and the Ethics of Reading (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2004), 192.
- 26.
Señor C. – the main character in Diary of a Bad Year – has written Waiting for the Barbarians, is from South Africa, and lives in Australia.
- 27.
Coetzee, Childhood, 18.
- 28.
Walkowitz, Born Translated, 4 and 3.
- 29.
As of mid-June 2019, the English manuscript of “Moral Tales” is in the process of being submitted to the publisher, according to information provided by Rema Dilan (e-mail message to author, 11 June 2019).
- 30.
Andrea Guzmán, “El sur existe”, La Agenda. Revista, 7 May 2018. As I have already pointed out, there is no English version of the collection published as yet. Notice that La Agenda. Revista is an online magazine run by the government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires.
- 31.
“Verónica Abdala, “La revolución de J.M. Coetzee, el Premio Nobel sudafricano que se pasó al castellano”, Clarín, 29 May 2019.
- 32.
By “ad hoc implementations” I refer to works created or used for a specific purpose and later republished. This is the case of “The Old Woman and the Cats”, which Coetzee offered to Berlinde de Bruyckere as inspiration for Belgium’s Pavilion at the 2013 Venice Biennale; see Berlinde De Bruyckere and J.M. Coetzee, Cripplewood/Kreupelhout (Brussels: Mercatorfonds, 2013) 7–12 and 21–28.
- 33.
Dinitia Smith, “Who Needs a Lecture? Coetzee Reads from a New Story”, The New York Times, 22 November 2003.
- 34.
Recorded versions of the Robert B. Silvers Lectures, from 2006 onwards, are available online. Other public readings by Coetzee are available online, mainly on YouTube.
- 35.
Caroline Levine, “The Great Unwritten: World Literature and the Effacement of Orality”, Modern Language Quarterly 74, no. 2 (June 2013): 232.
- 36.
The (almost) simultaneous circulation of born translated fiction in multiple languages creates a transnational interpretive community which may be correlated to the collective audience of literary readings, in which “[t]he presence of others watching and listening with me releases a power and a magic” (Kristin M. Langellier, “A Phenomenological Approach to Audience”, Literature in Performance 3, no. 2 (1983): 35), in contrast to solitary individual reading. For the importance of literary readings in contemporary Irish writers’ careers, see Helena Wulff, “Literary Readings as Performance: On the Career of Contemporary Writers in the New Ireland”, Anthropological Journal of European Cultures 17, no. 2 (September 2008): 98–113.
- 37.
Notice that in five out of the seven short stories in Siete cuentos morales, Elizabeth Costello is explicitly the main character.
- 38.
Frank Moorhouse, “Memorandum from the Editor”, in The Best Australian Stories 2004 (Melbourne: Black, 2004), x.
- 39.
Coetzee, Childhood, 107.
- 40.
Coetzee, Childhood, 22.
- 41.
Earlier I have mentioned that David sings Goethe’s ballad “Erlköning” in German and hence, the possibility that German is his (as well as Simón’s) mother tongue. Though kindergarten is a German loan word in English, David’s ability to sing in German supports my hypothesis about his mother tongue. In the last book in the trilogy, David sings another song in German, “In diesem Wetter, in diesem Braus”, a poem by Friedrich Rückert set as lied by Gustav Mahler within the cycle Kindertotenlieder; see J.M. Coetzee, Muerte, 19.
- 42.
Coetzee, Childhood, 51.
- 43.
Antoine Berman, “La retraduction comme espace de la traduction”, Palimpsestes 4 (1990): 1 (my trans.).
- 44.
Şebnem Susam-Sarajeva, “Multiple-Entry Visa to Travelling Theory: Retranslations of Literary and Cultural Theories”, Target 15, no. 1 (2003): 2 and 5. The allusion to synchronicity is contradictory to Susam-Sarajeva’s understanding of the “‘same’ target language” exclusively in terms of Gideon Toury’s theories on constant language change in translations done in different periods of time (Susam-Sarajeva, “Multiple-Entry Visa”, 30n1). It is here where I depart from Susam-Sarajeva to take into consideration intralingual synchronous variation.
- 45.
Coetzee, “Working with Translators”, 408, 407 and 412.
- 46.
Coetzee, Childhood, 121.
- 47.
Coetzee, Childhood, 152; J.M. Coetzee, “The Old Woman and the Cats”, in De Bruyckere and Coetzee, Cripplewood/Kreupelhout, 7.
- 48.
For an interpretation of “At the Gate” as an allegory of the writers’ devalued paradise, see Valeria Mosca, “‘A Purgatory of Clichés’: Elizabeth Costello and the Impossible Paradise for Writers”, Altre Modernità / Otras Modernidades / Autres Modernités / Other Modernities 7 (May 2012: Paradisi): 127–39.
- 49.
Cristóbal Pérez Barra, “Introducción”, in J.M. Coetzee, Dos lecciones de Elizabeth Costello, ed. and trans. Cristóbal Pérez Barra (n.p.: El Faro, 2015), 12 (my trans. and emphasis). My emphasis on America (“América” in the original) follows the way Pérez Barra translates himself into English in a 2018 intervention: “recognisable to Spanish speakers both in Spain and America”, in Cristóbal Pérez Barra, “Translating J.M. Coetzee in South America: In Search of Transatlantic Spanish”, in Michael Hollington, “Translating Coetzee: A Panel Discussion”, Writers in Conversation 5, no. 1 (February 2018): 10.
- 50.
Cristóbal Pérez Barra, “Translating J.M. Coetzee”, 10.
- 51.
Meir Sternberg, “Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis”, Poetics Today 2, no. 4 (Summer–Autumn 1981): 222.
- 52.
J.M. Coetzee, “The Old Woman”, 9.
- 53.
J.M. Coetzee, “The Old Woman”, 28.
- 54.
The inclusion of “seven” by the publishing house might mirror the inclusion of the subtitle “Eight Lessons” in the case of Elizabeth Costello when it was first published by Secker in 2003. For similarities with Brecht’s Lehrstück, see Pérez Barra, “Introducción”, 10.
- 55.
This ad hoc consortium is also responsible for the publication of La muerte de Jesús, which has also been translated by Marengo. The Argentinian publishing house El Hilo de Ariadna commissioned the translation into Spanish of both “Moral Tales” and The Death of Jesus to Elena Marengo upon J.M. Coetzee’s request (Marengo’s e-mail message to author, 21 August 2019).
- 56.
Though “Una historia” was published in Clarín. Revista Ñ without identifying the translator, a comparison with Siete cuentos morales shows there is no difference and hence, it should be considered a pre-published translation by Marengo intended to publicise the forthcoming publication of Siete cuentos morales.
- 57.
Pérez Barra, “Introducción”, 12 (my trans.).
- 58.
Eva Bravo García, El español internacional. Conceptos, contextos y aplicaciones (Madrid: Arco/Libros, 2008), 28 (my trans.).
- 59.
Pedro Luis Barcia, “El español adveniente: ¿neutro? ¿general? ¿glocal? ¿internacional?”, Boletín de la Academia Argentina de Letras 77 (January-April 2012), no. 319–20:150 (my trans.).
- 60.
It is included in the Diccionario del español de Argentina because “though the term is common in Peninsular Spanish”, it has “(additional, different) meanings in Argentinian Spanish which Peninsular Spanish does not have”, in Günther Haensch and Reinhold Werner, Diccionario del español de Argentina. Español de Argentina – Español de España (Madrid: Gredos, 2000), xlvii (my trans.).
- 61.
Conferencia meaning ‘congress’ in Spanish is an English foreign loan based on “conference”.
- 62.
Whereas vieja (old) has a pejorative meaning in Peninsular Spanish, this is not the case in Latin American Spanish, where it may be used to address somebody affectionately, including parents, relatives, and friends.
- 63.
According to the Diccionario de americanismos, presa in Chilean Spanish means ‘animals’ organs’ and ‘a person’s body part’, which may explain why Pérez Barra translates ‘expose himself’ as mostrar las presas (literally, ‘show one’s parts’).
- 64.
Whereas in Peninsular Spanish medias means only ‘tights’, in Latin American Spanish medias means both ‘tights’ and ‘socks’.
- 65.
Barcia, “El español adveniente”, 150 and 148n21.
- 66.
For the parallel corpora method, see Bengt Altenberg, “Adverbial Connectors in English and Swedish: Semantic and Lexical Correspondences”, in Out of Corpora: Studies in Honour of Stig Johansson, ed. Hilde Hasselgård and Signe Oksefjell, 249–68 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999). I am grateful to Inmaculada Mas Álvarez for pointing out to me the relevance of this method, which in my case needs to be adapted to intralingual similarities.
- 67.
Another visible variation is voseo (the use of vos as a second-person singular pronoun and its conjugational verbal forms), which understandably Pérez Barra does not use, whereas it might have been an option for Marengo.
- 68.
José Joaquín Montes G., “Lingüística, idiomática y español de América”, Revista de Filología Española 72, no. 3–4 (1992): 343.
- 69.
Coetzee, “As a Woman Grows Older”, The New York Review of Books, January 15, 2004, 14; Coetzee, Dos lecciones, 35. Another extreme example is the translation of “yapping bleak, bleak, bleak” in “As a Woman Grows Older”, a phrase that Pérez Barra understands as the onomatopoeic representation of a howl and hence, phonically renders as “aullando ¡blic, blic, blic!” (Coetzee, Dos lecciones, 19), which, by the way, is not how one would express a howl in Spanish. Marengo, on the other hand, translates this as “ladrando: lúgubre, lúgubre, lúgubre” (Coetzee, Siete cuentos, 46).
- 70.
Furthermore, Pérez Barra’s choice contradicts his aforementioned definition of “America” as ‘Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas’.
- 71.
Coetzee, Childhood, 107.
- 72.
I note an extremely illustrative example of this complexity in the following passage of “As a Woman Grows Older”. The original in English reads: “no one seems any longer to be aware that the verb ‘may’ has a past tense – what is the world coming to?” (Coetzee, “As a Woman”, 11). Pérez Barra chooses a literal translation – “ya nadie parece estar al tanto de que el verbo ‘poder’ tiene un tiempo pasado (¿adónde vamos a ir a parar?)” (Coetzee, Dos lecciones, 14–15), which requires a footnote that provides the Spanish-speaking reader with a grammatical explanation for the distinction may/might in English. In contradistinction, Marengo replaces it with a grammatical mistake in Spanish: “nadie parece darse cuenta ya de que no se dice aplicar a una beca, ¡a qué hemos llegado!” (Coetzee, Siete cuentos, 42). Aplicar means ‘to apply’ in Spanish, but it is not equivalent to one of the word’s most typical uses in English, “to apply for a job, fellowship, etc.”. The latter use is becoming pervasive in certain areas due to the influence of English. I take Marengo’s choice as a perfect example of the multipolarity and linguistic diversity within Spanish for it aligns Peninsular Spanish and Río de la Plata norms against other norms from the us, Honduras, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, and Colombia, amongst others, where aplicar, meaning ‘to apply for something’, is correct.
- 73.
David Crystal, English as a Global Language, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 3 and 4.
- 74.
Coetzee, Childhood, 186; Crystal, English, 15.
- 75.
Coetzee, Childhood, 158.
- 76.
Antonio Rivero Travillo, “Coetzee, en español”, Letra Global, 4 July 2019 (my trans.).
- 77.
I will discuss elsewhere the specificities of the translation into Spanish of the Jesus trilogy, whose third volume represented, according to Marengo, an “unique experiment”, namely, transforming the Spanish version into the “source text” (e-mail message to author, 21 August 2019).
- 78.
Miguel Temprano García, “‘A Watery Content’: Some Observations about Translating The Childhood of Jesus by Its Translator into Spanish”, in Michael Hollington, “Translating Coetzee: A Panel Discussion”, Writers in Conversation 5, no. 1 (February 2018): 9. In contrast to the first translation (into Dutch), here it is the Spanish one that achieves an authoritative status insofar as it may have corrected the English original. But the primacy Coetzee allocates to the source text in English introduces serious doubts to any argument about the privileged role performed by “originals” in Spanish.
- 79.
One may read in a similar light the fact that the text on the back cover of the book is written by Anna Kazumi Stahl, a us writer who has lived in Argentina since 1995 and writes in Spanish.
- 80.
Coetzee himself has referred to such an end (see Abdala, “La revolución”), while Domingo Ródenas de Moya titled his 2010 article on the writer “El estilo tardío y la autorrepresentación” (Late Style and Self-Representation), following Edward W. Said’s concept.
- 81.
Literatura universal, coined from the French littérature universelle, is the academic term for the international corpus of literary classics in the Spanish-speaking world. Both its genealogy and frictions with the Anglophone term “world literature” are yet to be explored.
- 82.
The quote comes from the description of the collection on the publishing house’s website < https://editorialelhilodeariadna.com.ar/colecciones/detalle/9> (my trans.; accessed 10 July 2019).
- 83.
Josefina Ludmer, Aquí América Latina: Una especulación (Buenos Aires: Eterna Cadencia, 2010), 190; Coetzee, Muerte, 103 (emphasis in original; Don Quijote should come here and we should perform feats here; my trans.). Here I am correlating David’s desire (deseo) with Ludmer’s argument about “two Latin American desires” (dos deseos latinoamericanos) – her desire for Latin America to have its own language academy and to be a confederation of nations (Ludmer, Aquí América Latina, 191 and 212–15n15).
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Domínguez, C. (2022). J.M. Coetzee as Latin American Writer: Simultaneous Translation—Foreignness—World Literature . In: Tihanov, G. (eds) Universal Localities. Schriften zur Weltliteratur/Studies on World Literature, vol 13. J.B. Metzler, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-62332-9_6
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