Introduction

Abstract

Litani River, the largest water resource in Lebanon , connects Lebanese regions with different physiographic characteristics, such as mountains and plains, and spans from the interior to the coastal zone of the country . In addition, Litani River occupies the Qaraaoun Reservoir , the largest of its type in Lebanon , with a capacity of about 220 million m³. The river is an optimal nexus of water, agriculture, and energy . However, it has lately become a geo-environmental issue with certain challenges creating a severe impact on the water quality and quantity. It is a paradox that although several studies, projects, and researches have been conducted on the river and its basin to enhance its status, deterioration was still exacerbated. Recently, a national plan for the Litani River was prepared by the Lebanese government to mitigate the existing physical and anthropogenic stresses on the river water and to reduce its harmful effects on human health . This chapter aims to highlight the principal elements concerning the river and its status. It also introduces the other chapters in this book.

1.1 Location of the Litani River

The territory of Lebanon is considered a regional water divide where water flows from Lebanon through three principal drainage systems , which have catchments extended as follows: (1) from the NE-SW alignment of Mount-Lebanon with a catchment area of 2500 km² toward the Mediterranean Sea ; (2) from the northern Bekaa Plain , represented by the Al-Assi River, northward and comprising a major tributary of the Orontes River with a catchment area of 25,300 km²; and (3) from Hermoun Mountain , represented by the Hasbani-Wazzani River , to the south and then constituting a major tributary of the Jordan River with about 8425-km² catchment area (Shaban and Hamzé 2017). However, the catchment of Litani River is separated from these three drainage systems , and thus it represents the junction area for them.

Located in the middle of Lebanon and joining the inner and the coastal zones, the Litani River Basin (LRB ) is located between the following geographic coordinates (Fig. 1.1):

Fig. 1.1

Location of the Litani River and its basin boundary

33° 06′ 25″N and 34° 04′ 05″N and 35° 14′ 40″E and 36° 22′ 44″E.

It is elaborated in the topographic maps, 1:20.000 in combination with the digital elevation model (DEM), and the hydrological concepts; however, the area of the LRB is 2110 km², which is equivalent to about 20% of Lebanon’s area, with a perimeter of about 433 km. The length of the primary watercourse of the river is 174 km.

Four Mohafazats (i.e., administrative governorates) extend within the border of the LRB . These (and their cazas) are as follows: Al-Bekaa (Baalbek, Zahle, Western Bekaa , and Rachaya), Mount-Lebanon (Meten, Alay, Baabda, and Esh-Shouf), Nabatie (Hasbaya, Nabatie, Marjayoun, and Bent Jbeil), and South Lebanon (Saida, Jezzine, and Sour). Within the LRB there are 246 cities, towns, and villages with >60% of them being located in the Bekaa region . These population entities occupy >370,000 people.

According to International Developing Research Center (IDRC), (National Council for Scientific Research-Lebanon ) CNRS-L , Litani River Authority (LRA), and Development Studies Association (DSA) (2007), the river crosses through three microclimatic and physiographic regions, namely,

• The semi-arid flood plain including the Bekaa Plain upstream of the Qaraaoun Reservoir .

• The mountainous region between Qaraaoun and the coastal plain, which is generally in the temperate wet Mediterranean slopes subdivided into two zones: the higher slopes (500–800 m) and the lower plateau (300–500 m).

• The hot, humid coastal plain (0–300 m).

1.2 Previous Studies

The greatest number of applied studies and projects has been conducted on the Litani River compared with all other Lebanese rivers because it is a major source for irrigation water and spans over different lands of the country . Primarily, the river water-flow regime , hydrology, hydro-power, and irrigation were studied. Nevertheless, this was not the case after the 1990s after concerns about river water had been diverted to water-quality deterioration and volumetric regression in the discharge from the rivers and its feeding sources.

Studies focusing on the Litani River started in the early 1940s when Abd El Al published a series of documents on the river’s hydrology and hydraulics, which acted as first hand-information for many consequent projects undertaken on the river and its feeding sources and tributaries . Therefore, it is not an exaggeration to say that the obtained studies by Abd El Al on the Litani River are a pioneer product on the water sector in Lebanon . They were followed by the establishment of the Qaraaoun Reservoir and its connection with the Kanan Lake and the related hydropower plants and the diverting irrigation channels over a wide portion of land in Lebanon .

However, the greatest number of the recently elaborated studies on the Litani River treat the contamination issue whether exists in the flowing water or in the Qaraaoun Reservoir . In addition, studies exist on the anthropogenic and physical challenges and stresses related to the river and its socioeconomic status.

A survey has been performed on the available studies on the Litani River and its related disciplines as shown in Table 1.1 where 60 representative studies are identified. The table shows that about 80% of the studies were conducted after 2000, and about two thirds of these studies focus on the issue of pollution and whether it is in the river water or in the Qaraaoun Reservoir . In addition, there is an obvious concern from academics on the Litani River, and hence, two thirds of the surveyed studies have also been elaborated upon by researchers and students (e.g., publications, master’s theses, and doctoral dissertations, etc.). Moreover, the greatest number of applied research projects were carried out/or supported by international agencies.

Table 1.1 Representative studies obtained on the Litani River

In fact, funds provided by the Lebanese water sectors to conduct these studies and projects on the Litani River are few and can be considered negligible when compared with those introduced by the international agencies, especially the World Bank , USAID .

Although the elaborated studies highlight the problems of proposed solutions to enhance the river’s status, there has been no remarkable improvement in the river and its basin. This can be attributed to the lack of coordination between the different institutes and stakeholders concerned with the water resources in Lebanon as well as the lack of government’s attention to these studies.

1.3 Significance of the Litani River

Due to its geographic location, notably, its extent from the interior to the coastal region and then crossing over diverse topographic surfaces with a miscellany of human settlements , the Litani River has always been considered a principal component in the socioeconomic development of Lebanon . The significance of the Litani River is not limited to the basin where it flows into but rather where it extends outbound of its catchment area . Therefore, the Litani River provides water in channels over several hundreds of kilometers in and out of its basin where it irrigates large agricultural lands . The river is also a major source of energy where electricity generation from the river covers a large part of the Lebanese territory , especially when demand for energy becomes competitive. Therefore, the Litani River, which occupies about 9% of the Lebanese population , plays a major role in the development of Lebanon . This can be summarized as follows:

• 1. The river contributes to the irrigation system for thousands of hectares of farmland. It is also believed that the river contributes to the water needs of close to a million people and also secures wetlands , a major reservoir, and the watershed ecosystem including its soil and forests (IDRC, CNRS, LRA, and DSA 2007). This is well-reflected on food security and the conservation of the natural resources of the country .

• 2. The agricultural sector in the LRB is mainly governed by the Litani water, and thus 31% of the income within the basin comes from agriculture where 6% (of the 370,000 inhabitants ) work in the agricultural sector . This contributes to the majority of income.

• 3. The running water in the river is connected to three electricity plants: the Qaraaoun, Markaba, and Al-Awali stations . They generate electrical energy averaging about 190 megawatts, which is equivalent to 10–12% of Lebanon’s electricity needs.

• 4. The volume of water discharged from the basin is equivalent to 24% of the net rainfall received by the entire Lebanese territories. This quantity represents >40% of the total amount of running water in the internal rivers (LRA 2014).

• 5. Many distinguished and water-related features belong to the LRB . This includes the mountain crests , which are covered by snow for several months over the year. In addition, the river basin occupies the largest artificial lake in Lebanon , the Qaraaoun Reservoir , which has a capacity of about 220 million m³. In addition, wetlands of different dimension exist in the LRB with the two most well-known ones being Ammiq and Kfar Zabad.

1.4 Challenges on the Litani River

It is not an exaggeration to say that the Litani River is subjected to one of the most severe geo-environmental problems not only on a national level but also on an international level. The volume of water is affected badly and its quality even more severely. Hence, encroachments on the river are everywhere including its tributaries and flood plains, the Qaraaoun Reservoir, as well as the groundwater, the water body that feeds and is fed from the river.

The existing challenges on the Litani River have been exacerbating since the last two decades as a chaotic distribution of human activities take place in the context of total lack of any control and legislation to mitigate or even reduce the unfavorable impact. Therefore, the inallenges on the Litani River compose a typical example for those on the entire Lebanon country where all water resources are under stress.

Several complaints about the reasons behind the unfavorable status in the water sector in Lebanon . Due to a lack of knowledge and misunderstanding, many people attribute this to the physical conditions with a special emphasis on the changing climatic conditions and negligence related to human interference and mismanagement of the water sector .

Several alarming challenges occur on the water resources of Lebanon . These are either physical (natural) or anthropogenic (man-made) in nature. Both aspects of the challenges negatively influence the volume and quality of the Litani River system. Combined with these challenges , water management is also at a weak level regarding stablisation of the current situation in the water sector . This is attributed to many political issues acting on Lebanon and the region as a whole. In addition, adaptation measures to conserve water and to equilibrate water demand /supply are still inefficient.

• 1. Physical challenges : These are related to the natural setting from which water is demanded. If this setting is not favorable for the water regime or for storage , a physical challenge on water occurs (Shaban 2014). In the LRB , the existing physical challenges can be summarized as follows:

  • The existing climatic variability with a special focus on the torrential rainfall regime and the resulting low infiltration rate. In addition, the increased temperature by about 1.8 °C created an increased water demand , notably for irrigation purposes (Shaban 2011). This accelerates the melting rate of the snow , which has doubled lately due to the increased temperature and sunlight radiation resulting in faster stream flow (Shaban et al. 2014).

  • The geomorphology of the LRB , as an elongated catchment , makes it lack water-flow uniformity from the upstream to the confluences and then the outlet, which often reduces the infiltration rate and enhances flooding.

  • A very gentle slope occurs in the Bekaa Plain , comprising the Upper Litani Sub-basin, resulting in slow stream -flow energy . This in turn buys time for evaporation processes as well as for sediments and pollutants to settle.

  • The existence of karstification often results in groundwater loss in deep/undefined rock stratums, as in the case of Mount-Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon chains , which confine the largest part of the Litani River. Moreover, the considerable number of karstic springs results in fast water discharge from these springs, which is accompanied by less exploitation of these resources.

  • The existence of fault systems with several sets and aspects adds a negative role to water loss through these faults, and the resulting water seeps into undefined and very deep aquifers .

• 2. Anthropogenic challenges : These represent the negative impact of human interference on water resources compared with the physical challenges . In addition, the anthropogenic challenges can be controlled or regulated, which is not always the case for the physical challenges .

In the LRB , the challenges on water resources are tremendous, which severely influence the general status of the river. In addition, these challenges are being dramatically exacerbated without any concurrent mitigation. They can be summarized as follows:

• Pollution is the major problem in the LRB . This includes the river water, water in the Qaraaoun Reservoir , and groundwater . In this respect, three chapters in this book discuss these aspects of pollution . However, the microbiological and chemical analyses of the river water (surface and sub-surface), which was performed several years ago, show that contamination is doubly exceeding the normal standards . Results on the water analysis from the river tributary of the reservoir of Qaraaoun and from the groundwater are discussed in Chaps. 4–6 in this book. Hence, the reason behind this severe condition is the lack of control and the increased aspects of violations, notably, in delivering sewages, including liquid and solid wastes disposal, into the river course. Moreover, the uncontrolled use of fertilizers in agriculture negatively affects the water quality , especially that of the groundwater (Darwich et al. 2011; Baydoun et al. 2015).

• Increased population is well pronounced in Lebanon and adds to the challenges regarding the different socioeconomic elements including the water sector . This also affects water supply and demand as well as food security in the LRB . Hence, the annual population increase in Lebanon fluctuates between 0.20% and 4.18% and stands at 1.70% (UN 2012). The greatest population increase is often reported in the rural areas, like that of the LRB , which can be estimated at 2.6%. In this case, an annual increase of 9000 people in the LRB can be estimated. If the annual water demand (220 m³/capita/y) is considered, then it amounts to 2 million m³ water that is additionally needed every year.

  This is not the only aspect of increased water demand . There are also the increased new requirements for water, which have become a new aspect of water consumption including water not accounted for water as well as virtual water.

• Waste disposal is a major problem faced by Lebanon . This is attributed to many factors with politics being a major one. Therefore, the lack of favorable sites to dispose of wastes results in a chaotic distribution of waste disposal (liquid and solid) and landfills of different dimensions. This status affects water resources where these disposals are dumped, and they reach the groundwater reservoirs as well.

• Lack of legal controls and environmental legislations to govern several water-related issues whether on the exploitation or conservation aspects . Therefore, several controls should be applied such as monitoring borehole drilling, fixing water meters, and applying tariffs and other economic policies.