Keywords

1 Introduction

The secretion of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) is the redundant by-product generally connected with the burning of fossil fuel for energy requirements [1, 2]. The major thrust of the world is going through crucial issues like energy scarcity, air pollution and the secretion of greenhouse gas (GHG) [3]. Electric Vehicles , which utilize both the electrical and internal combustion engines for propulsion purposes, materialize to show potential prospect [3, 4]. Furthermore, PHEVs are widely predictable as an answer that will decrease the damaging effect on the climate and lessen the carbon secretion [5]. Therefore, this type of vehicle offers a lead in the search to reduce carbon secretion by as much as 30–50% and be able to attain 40–60% upgrading in fuel efficiency [1]. While C. Barbarossa et al. [6] stated that it is the real fact they are going to be impartially on the lower side. A number of researchers have proven that a large amount of decrease in greenhouse gasses secretion and in the accumulating dependence on oil could be proficient by the electrification of the transportation sectors, which further needs suitable understanding and acceptance from the consumer’s point of view [7,8,9]. Electric vehicle (EV) has experienced major transformations in the last few decades. The achievement of the smart electric grid with the addition of renewable energy exclusively depends on the extensive diffusion of EV for a carbon-free and sustainable transportation zone. Various efforts are being understood to decrease the secretion in the transportation zone. The main centre of attention is to sequence towards the implication of clean technology, which aims to reduce the GHG secretion and increase the vehicle performance [10]. The electrifying transportation is one of the promising approaches with many profits. By using this approach, EVs could get better energy security by diversifying energy sources hence foster economic growth. The EVs was developed to overcome the disadvantages of internal combustion engine ICE vehicles [11]. Lawful agencies around the entire earth are implementing different initiatives, strategies and agendas for broader EVs uptake [12]. The determinations appeared to pay off as EVs flinch to advance the acceptance among the public.

Stimulating transportation sectors show a potential method to progress the environmental-related changes and problems associated with that transportation sector [13]. The acceptance of electric vehicle into the market has introduced major impacts on a variety of fields, more than ever the power grid [14]. A number of policies have been implemented towards the promotion of electric vehicle operation with the rising inclination of electric vehicle adoption in the present eras has been fulfilling the need of thoughtful consumers [15]. The frequent development of electric vehicle power grid, battery and charger technologies has added development in the direction of electric vehicle technologies for broader acceptance among consumers [7]. Regardless of the ecological and economic compensation, EVs charging commences adverse influences on the accessible power grid procedure [14]. Due to lack of suitable charging management, plans can be tailored in order to overcome the issue related to EVs [16]. Furthermore, PHEVs adding in the smart grid can bring a number of conceivable probabilities particularly from the viewpoint of the innovation based on vehicle-to-grid (V2G) which is a thoughtful way for the renewable energy intermittency issue [17]. This research study is to look the latest expansion on EVs technologies, and their impacts and opportunities delivered by electric vehicle innovation [7]. According to Adnan et al. [1], EVs went through a series of technological developments before achieved the recent popularity. The repeated growth of EV technologies is important to arrange and struggle with the leading EV wider consumption and observation to be found on improving technologies, particularly oil price is kept rising, more automakers were dedicated to vehicle electrification [5]. Therefore, these components experience major shift along the EV improvement process. EVs can be hierarchical in a small number of types based on the vehicle hybridization ratio, which are hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Whereas acceptance of EVs gives green sustainability, PHEVs are claimed to be green and ecological-pleasant since PHEVs have fewer tailpipe emissions [7]. However, PHEVs usage is based on electricity produced through power grid in order to charge their batteries and the power generation procedure does not generate GHG emissions [4]. Currently, the transportation sectors heavily consume gasoline or petrol for their impulsion [9]. Nearby there is no interconnection among the transportation sector and power grid throughout that period. Conversely, the condition alterations with the wide adoption of PHEV into the marketplace since PHEV can be plugged into the power grid to take a distribution of energy [7]. When the interrelation among power grid and transport sector occurs, extensive investigations have been approved out to study the harmful impacts of PHEV charging on the power grid, which is previously addressed in [18]. Other than challenges, PHEV consumption, in reality, bring many opportunities to the parallels residential smart grid [19, 20]. Some interesting opportunities brought by the PHEV deployment in the smart grid are the V2G skill and addition of renewable energy sources and PHEV [21].

This research is to ensure that the return to higher oil prices in 2008 with the resource hovering at more than $140 per barrel for a short time has convinced some consumers to switch permanently from gas-guzzling behemoths to more energy-efficient vehicles. However, it also appears that the motivations for this switch were not detailed economic analyses, but simple reactions to sharp increases in the price of fuel. Most people apparently remain unable or perhaps unwilling to conduct careful economic calculations of the cars they buy a trend that will take more than higher oil prices to change.

2 Contribution

The history of other energy transitions implies that these “socio-technical” obstacles may be just as important to any V2G transition and, perhaps because they are often harder to identify, more difficult to overcome. Because no commercially feasible PHEVs implication presently available on the market, our assessment has the benefit of informing policy makers before they commit to a predetermined technological pathway. Given that energy technologies such as refineries and power stations require extremely large capital expenditures, the infrastructure built today will remain in operation for 30–40 years. By identifying a range of barriers to PHEVs and an eventual V2G transition now, we can help inform policymakers early in the process and perhaps avoid spending huge amounts of money on a promising technological pathway that fails to deliver results.

3 Literature Review

What is V2G? Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) describe as the bi-directional communication set-up, the application of V2G perception will develop reasonable by regulatory and dealing with energy conversation among the PHEV battery and power grid [17]. PHEV obtains indicating from the power grid when the charging level of PHEV battery is comparatively lessened [9]. In the line of V2G process, the charging level of the PHEV battery is uninterruptedly observed and allowable to be liquidated towards the smart grid [14]. Whereas PHEVs can be measured as energetic dispersed energy loadings [5]. Consequently, suitable V2G controlling for the large fleet of PHEV is significant to attain numerous assistances, such as dynamic power parameter, responsive power parameter and subsidiary service sustenance [22]. The V2G innovation received more attention than conventional due to the expansion of the bi-directional PHEV charges, which have permitted with the two-ways communication and energy conversation among power grid and PHEVs [6]. The innovation of V2G might bring numerous benefits towards the power grid with the proper V2G regulator and control [19]. However, the large fleet of grid-connected PHEVs will lead in the direction of different consequence in many undefined restraints towards the power grid, such as the dissimilar state of charging levels of PHEV batteries and the energetic prospect of PHEV assembly [7]. In command to accomplish the large fleet of PHEVs, component pledge optimization system is cast-off for development and regulatory the energy flow among PHEVs and power grid [23].

Problem identification for this research study is an important part in order to assess existing information and identify the problem that the previous researchers trying to address. The objective is to classify the problems of V2G adoption and their root cause, measure their influences and ensure the biggest problems which need to addressed as a priority. In the line of this research study, the technology road plotting of a smart battery charging infrastructure for PHEVs in order to aim they integrate this within the smart grids. The battery charging procedure is measured by a suitable regulator procedure, pointing to reserve the battery-operated life cycle [23, 24]. The foremost topographies of the gear are the modification of the power excellence deprivation and the bi-directional process, as a system of the grid to vehicles G2V and as a vehicle-to-grid (V2G). Therefore, the V2G mode of operation will be one of the foremost topographies of the smart grids , together with the collaboration with the electronic power grid to intensification constancy and to purpose as a dispersed energy storage system (ESS) [9]. Consequently, PHEVs could show an essential part in decarbonizing street transport in the near upcoming. To found the suitable policies for research and development (R&D) is obligatory. Rendering to Hoang et al. [17], technology road mapping is an appropriate means to shape up planned and long-term strategies by measuring possibly disrupting innovation skills and market variations. Thus, the unbiased approach of this research study makes consumers considerate for smart grid technology. In particular, this research focuses on the application of smart grids in the PHEV and V2G system adoption.

3.1 Theorizing V2G and PHEVs with the Practical Experiments Ahead

Furthermost, contemporary vehicles pay more attention towards ICE internal combustion engines because its start rapidly and deliver power as early as the as vehicles drivers need it. However, they function unproductively and discarded energy when lazing [6]. Dissimilarly plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which have seen profitable accomplishment such as the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, the Honda Civic Hybrid and many others, these varieties of product in the vehicle have additionally added a high functional battery and electric motor to vehicles, which contain ICE as well [7]. In the line of progressive power electronics and computer controls with conventional and electric drive vehicles, PHEVs function more proficiently than those that run on ICE unaided and lessen releases CO2 [18]. They lessen fuel usage because they employ the electric motor frequently (particularly in the slow circulation of traffic), as they shut down the ICE once the vehicle has motionless for a prearranged sum of time, and since they evoke else they can cast-off dynamic energy throughout decelerating [1, 5, 7, 18]. Whereas Table 8.1 illustrates the difference between conventional and non-conventional vehicles.

Table 8.1 Difference between conventional and non-conventional vehicles
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PHEVs transmit topographies, which comprise all the feature of PHEV innovation additionally it carries features, which contain a larger battery. Furthermost, Rahman et al. [9] PHEV prototypes comprise a larger battery which is proficient of driving the vehicle about 20 and 60 miles (nearly 30–100 km) consuming electric power alone. In the line of this research Kempton and Tomić [25], stated the example of taking an initiative about advertising the Chevrolet Volt, an all-electric vehicle (AEV) that can function up to 40 miles on the household present without revitalizing [7].

In conclusion, a vehicle capable of “vehicle-to-grid” (V2G) interface , occasionally mentioned to as “mobile energy” or “smart charging”, companions a vehicle with the current electric utility system [6, 23, 25]. Automobiles must retain three fundamentals function in the V2G establishment: a power assemblage power grid, a control and/or communication device that consents the grid operatives admittance to the battery-operated and accuracy on board the vehicle to path energy flows [14]. This intellectual, two-way interaction between the power grid and the car allows utilities to achieve power possessions in a better way, and it approves car owners to obtain cash by selling influence back to the grid [6].

The V2G and PHEVs schemes are consequently familiarly consistent. The PHEVs have the chance to develop not only vehicles but also mobile, self-sufficient incomes that can accomplish electricity flow and relocate the essential need for electric efficacy substructure [22]. The V2G cars can decrease the era price of the PHEVs, thus creation them extra striking, and if V2G upsurges the market perspective of PHEVs, the advantages of PHEV usage will also upsurge [26]. In the line of the context, the benefits and obstacles opposite the PHEVs continue unified with those who are the opposite V2G, which clarifies our argument, which is based on the adoption of V2G [6, 14].

3.2 The Benefit of V2G Transition

The concept of V2G stimulates promoters since it offers joint advantages to the transport sectors and the PHEV as well as the electronic schemes [9]. V2G has served the benefit that is associated with the reduction of gasoline usage, consolidation of the budget; enhance the national security , reducing damaging on gasoline substructure and refining the natural atmosphere [23]. Furthermore, it could add capacity to the power-driven grid through peak times deprived of the necessity for the efficacy business to shape new influence towards the plants [6]. The instant effect of extensive use of PHEVs might be lesser petroleum price. Upsurges in petroleum prices in 2008 and 2009 arose not only since the crude oil purchase price climbs, however, due to the purifying ability and deficiencies [19]. The world economist has a theoretical level that the crude oil could be free, but high prices for fuel would still exist because plants cannot deliver sufficient petrol [21]. In this research, superior market diffusion of PHEVs might directly restrain petroleum usage, facilitation plant scarcities and likely reduce prices. Conversely, in the long term, V2G will reduce the oil import through a large number of penetrations of V2G towards the transportation sector, which gives them additional benefits [6, 17].

However, the evolution towards the adoption of PHEV/V2G idea might also deal main environmental advantages [27, 28]. In this study, it is stated that the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency [29] intended that per mile releases CO2 that is expectable the PHEVs might drop about 60–70% when associated with the conventional cars. In the line of this study documented that PHEVs decrease carbon dioxide’s (CO2) by 59–66%, nitrogen oxides (N2O) from 48 to 80% and particular matter from 66 to 76%. The supposition that the PHEVs had an AEV range between 20 and 60 miles was phased in for light-duty cars were mechanical with power from a range of 60% coal and 40% gust [27]. The environmental impact of V2G vehicles contrariwise, but it found that even when powered totally by coal-fired electricity, PHEVs still produce around 25% GHG emissions per mile than do conventional vehicles [27, 30, 31]. This study underlined that the valuation importantly underestimates the GHG reduce the potential for PHEVs [13]. The emission might be lesser since the usefulness of collections might comprise some lesser carbon producers, which is based on renewables and cogeneration components and would not consist of 100% coal-fired generators, as the study assumed [32]. Furthermore, authors discuss the consumer perspective towards the adoption of PHEVs and V2G systems.

3.3 Consumer Attitudes and Motivations

Consumer attitude and inclinations for PHEVs must be measured in emerging marketplace portion [33]. PHEVs are essential not only dazed the technical glitches opposite the battery technology but also societal concerns connected to consumers in a directive to attain profitable achievement [18]. However, the consumer adoption is critical to the enduring accomplishment towards the sustainable transportation sectors [7]. Though consumers incline to be resistant in order to the adoption of PHEVs that is measured as unacquainted or unverified [5]. Thus, failure by PHEV producers and policy makers to classify and dazed consumer problems which may result in continual low acceptance of PHEVs long after the technological problems are determined. In order to make the consumer accept the adoption of PHEV via a V2G system [17]. The researcher has used as the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) by Ajzen [34] which clarifies the factors influencing the consumer behaviour [6]. Based on the TPB, the main factors that predict the consumer behavioural intention are attitudes, it explains information and knowledge, whereas subjective norms explain that the consumer to be in certain acceptable level, which is perceived societal, pressure which indicates to perform and not to perform a certain behaviour which impacts the adoption level [9]. In the line of this book chapter, consumer adoption is considered an intention to adopt, use, PHEVs [34]. The basic cognitive of the TPB is that movements which are selected founded on an investigation of the substitutes over the optimum consequence are attained [7].

Researchers investigate that some mutual obstacles towards the adoption of any new knowledge that comprise the deficiency of knowledge by educating the possible adopters, which is based on high preliminary costs and low-risk of acceptance [1, 9]. A research stated by Adnan et al. [1] designates that consumer acceptance of PHEVs is inadequate partially due to apparent hazards with new products and interchanges between vehicle fuel competence, price and size. The consumer’s awareness of hazard is founded by a knowledge, reactions are based on the non-technical aspect towards the adoption of PHEV which is done with the help of V2G [19]. Generally, the social media or the mass media and social networks frequently affect standards which are based on consumer choice towards the adoption of PHEVs specifically based on V2G technology [9, 19]. In relationships with economic assistances, consumers are added which probably to indicate decisions that make the most of the utility built on their inclinations, information of substitutes and low-priced [19]. The preliminary cost of PHEVs is pointedly higher when it is associated with a petrol power-driven ICE vehicle and this cost growth is higher due to the size of the battery as well as the range of the vehicles [7]. Furthermore, the non-financial explanations, particularly those related to environment and green energy can affect consumers’ decisions to buying a PHEV [8]. In future, the potential for PHEVs to generate social welfares by dropping petroleum ingesting and GHG emissions can application to particular consumers. Ecological ethics are influential forecasters of convinced consumer schedules and absolutely affect willingness to involve in activities that defend the environment [7, 31, 35]. Heffner et al. [36] originate that, to this collection of consumers, who illustration high levels of environmental consciousness, indicating a PHEV signifies thoughts associated to one’s specific which used to connect benefits and standards. Reviewing the PHEV purchases in Falvo et al. [22] originate that ecologists are extra probable to acquisition the PHEVs associated to non-environmentalists. Similarly, Al-Alawi et al. [4] originate that communal predilections for environmental fineness and energy security were a major factor for consumer adoption of PHEVs. Rahman et al. [9] determined that social favourites amplified PHEV sales more than rising gas prices or tax incentives. Besides, the traditional tendencies in technology adoption suggest that though innovation is essentially attractive to insufficient initial adopters, counting seeds and technology supporters, the widespread of consumers will endure close-minded about the innovation [37]. However, this small segment of primary adopters has significantly attitudes to innovation and is likely to adopt new innovation [36]. In the line of this research, some consumers are uncomfortable with technological change and uncertainty, and therefore are hesitant to accept innovations [38]. Heffner et al. [36] found that the people who show high levels of environmental awareness, choosing an EV symbolizes ideas related to one’s individuality and is used to communicate interests and values. The majority of consumers, although making choices, stick to “ideas of traditional knowledge” somewhat than acceptance a new innovation [7]. In the line of the new eras, though there are cumulative motives to adopt PHEVs counting increasing and unstable petrol values, greenhouse gas emissions, increased need for imported petroleum, and the very high fuel budget of PHEV [8].

3.4 Barrier of V2G Transition Based on Social and Cultural Aspect

These potential benefits obviously supporters of the V2G idea, urging them to last effort on what they see as the main difficulties, specifical difficulties with battery innovation and high prices associated with conventional IC cars [39]. However, power-driven problems to a PHEV transition noticeably happen, the interval of this object claims that researchers and lawful agency vital to classify other impairments [40]. Furthermost prominently, they necessity reflect that influence of a congregation of socio-technical deliberations, such as those that might ascend between consumers, those linking to commercial practices and checking the aspect of lawful agencies, and that business with communal struggle [8]. It might opportunity out that, smooth with practical glitches determined the V2G idea may not improvement extensive adoption [17]. To assistance comprehend the glitches; we associate V2G apprehensions to those knowledgeable in the overview of other non-traditional energy innovation [27]. Furthermore, it is more understandable that energy transformation losses due to efficiency-related issues while applying V2G in order to tackle the power source. However, this is losses occurs each time when the energy stored or transmitted. Whereas in PHEV , the quantity of losses differs and can be very large which losses in the internal combustion engine, in the line with smaller losses which can be in power electronic devices and electric energies. In this study, PHEV-grid or EV-grid are inter-connected, it is understandable that, once energy goes over the numerous phases of storing, alteration, parameter and diffusion, each stage underwrites to losses. Additionally, V2G procedure rights that energy stream can be overturned, and kept energy can be sent back towards the grid [41]. Lastly, Fig. 8.1 shows the V2G losses analysis, which could be other barriers towards the adoption of the V2G system. The storage is not at the higher level.

Fig. 8.1
figure 1

Losses analysis of V2G

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3.5 Consumers Concerns

There are numerous issues related to customers, which could be a lack of awareness among consumers [10] towards the benefit of PHEVs, particularly in the arena of effective management of energy usage and the environmental benefit. The main crucial point for the customers is that the vehicles depend upon the recharging services, during long journeys the risk of being out of energy while driving the vehicles. The recharging necessities need to be site autonomous, which allows the drivers to charge the vehicles regardless of the particular place. Automatic identification of cars essential that need to be possible [8]. Inadequate charging infrastructure will prime range of apprehension. Furthermore, the problem leads towards the stealing and damage of consumer charging infrastructure. Consumer’s anxiety on unified payment unavailability of fund and security of payments and money transactions. Numerous charging service operators lead to interoperability problems [21]. The consumer of PHEVs should be mindful of the responsibility position of the PHEV sequences. Additionally, it will lead the inadequate size of the parking portion which central to jam and consumption of time for the car’s execution of the grid transactions. Inappropriate forecasting concern ascends that create its challenges in order to regulate the suitable time for an assumed car to purchase or sell power control [28]. Intellectual preparation of PHEV’s is crucial to empower the consumers to contribute towards the management demand side PHEVs vehicles operators towards the need evidence about the accessibility of electrical energy system and the costs for the dissimilar substitutes that they can select from at any assumed period [37].

4 Conclusions and Future Direction for Transportation Policymakers

An evolution of V2G innovation has ample to the proposition. The phenomena of reducing gasoline usage would aid defending the oil introducing markets from gasoline cost points and shudders to the worldwide marketplace, attractive nationwide safety and justifying the transmission of capital to oil-producing nations [42]. It might also importantly recover the superiority of the atmosphere, transferring injurious CO2 emissions and the healthiness, environmental and climate-changed compensations they transport with them. Furthermore, PHEVs is the essential predecessor to V2G innovation, proposal car driver possible price investments from their use of power as a fuel in its place of petrol, and they might importantly progress the economic routine of power-driven efficacy businesses, principally those that usage renewable energy producers such as wind turbines and solar panels.

Though the supports of such a changeover have been extensively documented, which has not up until now been attained, possibly since the impairments opposite such innovation continue concurrently procedural and communal, particularly for the PHEV , firstly the link in a V2G evolution. Impairments linking to purchaser adoption , the historic abhorrence towards innovation, and enthusiastic confrontation from investors in the prevailing infrastructure may be noteworthy. V2G innovations and PHEVs may understand refusal from consumers since of their high original price, a thoughtful obstacle since that most persons do not reduction the investments from energy-efficient innovations as do monetary specialists. Drivers will probably be uninformed of how their driving designs and behaviours insignificantly affect V2G PHEV enactment, showing irritation and hindrance if their new vehicles do not achieve exactly as predicted. Additional thoughtful confrontation may come after vehicle producers, oil corporations and restoration industries that have defeated billions of dollars into the source and manufacture substructure for predictable cars. One would imagine these influential businesses to utilize huge inspiration with legislators and the community to uphold the position.

This particular research study absorbed on the observations and attitudes of a technically minded collection towards PHEVs. The forthcoming research study will associate the perception and attitude with the consumer in order to deliver understanding on in what way dissimilar categories of customers recognize PHEVs and V2G system in the direction to delivers the high point consumer’s correspondences and alterations among the two dissimilar customer clutches [9, 27]. However, the ownership cost of V2G and PHEVs deliberated in this research articles, which also leads towards the future prospects of this work. In another part of the worlds as Europe, the gasoline price is higher compared to another part of the developed nation [2, 28, 43]. Consequently, deprived of other inducements, customers will probably to be additionally interested in obtaining PHEVs in Europe than in the USA [27]. However, in the developing nations, customers are more willing to buy V2G-enabled PHEVs system when they aware about the harmful effect of CO2 emission which is an injurious outcome to the environment [42]. The customer who takes adoption of PHEVs and V2G system can enhance their lifestyle. Whereas Fig. 8.2 reveals the virtual power plant structure in order to store the grid. Virtual power plant not only compacts with the source side, nonetheless, it also benefits to accomplish the plea and safeguard the grid dependability through plea reaction in the real period [41].

Fig. 8.2
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Virtual power plant

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A number of institutional barriers also need be addressed [13] such as: (1) necessity of adequate standards for upcoming penetration of electric vehicles with V2G services, (2) lack of mass production of vehicles with V2G capability, (3) unavailability of regulation services rates at the retail level, (4) regulation signal is not broadcasted by all Independent System Operators (ISOs) and (5) absence of vehicles aggregators to control individual vehicles as well as multiple fleets.

Furthermore, if we receive that PHEVs and V2G innovation have noteworthy compensations, but continue hindered by socio-technical difficulties, then the research and development trails need some modification. Whereas the continued research effort will endorse the improved quality of battery and it is also related to the control innovations. Certainly, researcher deliberate that better-quality batteries, for instance, can assistance lessen some of the impairments researcher designates. Nevertheless, researcher purely reminder that effort to recover the mechanical enactment of hardware must be attached with efforts to overwhelmed financial, behavioural, ethnic and infrastructural difficulties. However, these categories of blockades do not appropriate effortlessly into the outdated research and development groups and continue intensely entrenched in the social and official material. Overpowering them may necessitate a considerable exertion that presently escapes many conversations.

5 Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP), Department of Management and Humanities and Graduate Assistantship (UTP-PG/ADM_PGC November-2014 AL1406182) scheme to facilitate this research study. The authors would also like to thank the reviewers for their valuable suggestion in order enhances the manuscript.