Abstract
In various NDT methods, eddy current testing (ECT) technique is widely used for surface and near surface defect inspection, and characterization of electrical conductive materials. This chapter gives brief introduction of theories and applications of advanced ECT, with emphases on the probe design and numerical simulation methods. The chapter moves from short historical and status reviews of the ECT technique, a basic understanding of ECT principles, to state of the art of the testing method in the first section. As bases of ECT numerical simulation methods, theories of electromagnetics related to the advanced ECT is presented in section “Theory of Electromagnetics for ECT Problem”. The topics include basic equations of the low frequency electromagnetic field, skin effect and standard depth of penetration in ECT, and sensitivity and influence factors in ECT inspection. In section “Numerical Methods for Eddy Current Testing”, numerical methods for the three-dimensional ECT problem are described in terms of the A-ϕ, Ar formulations, and FEM and BEM methods. In addition, the equations for calculating ECT signals from the eddy current field are described based on the Biot-Savart’s law and the reciprocity principle at the end of the section. Due to advancement in ECT probe design and optimization, in section “Design and Optimization of ECT Probes”, typical types of ECT probes and magnetic field sensors are introduced. Later, numerical designs of various ECT probes are presented. Furthermore, a phenomenological strategy based on a simplified relationship between the source magnetic field and the induced eddy current is described for evaluation of crack-probe interaction and detectability of ECT probes. At the end of the section, procedures for optimal design of advanced ECT probes for crack detection are given. In section “Applications of Advanced Numerical Analysis for ECT”, progress in forward and inverse numerical techniques and schemes for simulation of ECT problems are explained in detail. Specific numerical approaches are utilized for the ECT signal simulation and crack profile reconstruction by using a deterministic optimization method, an artificial intelligent method, and stochastic optimization methods. The chapter gives good reference for studentsand researchers in the field of ECT and computational electromagnetics.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach JD (2000) Quantitative nondestructive evaluation. Int J Solids Struct 37:1–27
Atherton DL (1995) Remote field eddy current inspection. IEEE Trans Magn 31(6):4142–4147
Auld BA, Moulder JC (1999) Review of advances in quantitative eddy current nondestructive evaluation. J Nondestruct Eval 18:3–36
Burke SK (1986) Impedance of a horizontal coil above a conducting half space. J Phys D Appl Phys 19:1159–1173
Bowler J (1987) Eddy current calculations using half-space Green’s functions. J Appl Phys 61(3):833–839
Badics Z, Pavo J, Komatsu H (1998) Fast flaw reconstruction from 3D eddy current data. IEEE Trans Magn 34:2823–2828
Chari MVK (1974) Finite element solution of the Eddy current problem in magnetic structures. IEEE Trans Power Appar Syst 93(1):62–72
Chen Z, Aoto K, Miya K (2000) Reconstruction of cracks with physical closure for signal of eddy current testing. IEEE Trans Magn 36:1018–1022
Cochran A, Carr C (1995) Recent progress in SQUIDs as sensors for electromagnetic NDE. Studi Appl Electromagn Mech 8:75–86
Cecco VS, Drunan GV, Sharp FL (1986) Eddy current manual: volume 1: test method, NUC-CAN-AECL-7523 Rev.1, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
Chen Z, Miya K (1998a) ECT inversion using a knowledge based forward solver. J Nondestruct Eval 17(3):167–175
Chen Z, Miya K (1998b) A new approach for optimal design of eddy current probes. J Nondestruct Eval 17(3):105–116
Cheng W, Miya K, Chen Z (1999) Reconstruction of cracks with multiple eddy current coils using a database approach. J Nondestruct Eval 18:149–160
Chen Z, Miya K, Kurokawa M (1997) A distinctive featured optimization approach for ECT probes. Rev Prog Quant Nondestr Eval 16:989–996
Chen Z, Miya K, Kurokawa M (1999) Rapid prediction of eddy current testing signals using A-ϕ method and database. NDT&E Int 32:29–36
Chen Z, Rebican M, Miya K, Takagi T (2005) 3D simulation of remote field ECT by using Ar method and a new formula for signal calculation. Res Nondestr Test 16:35–53
Chen Z, Rebican M, Yusa N, Miya K (2006a) Fast simulation of ECT signal due to a conductive crack of arbitrary width. IEEE Trans Magn 42:683–686
Chen Z, Takashima H, Miya K (2004a) A hybrid database approach for simulation of remote field eddy current testing signals. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech 19:219–223
Chen Z, Xie S, Li Y (eds) (2015) Electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation (XVIII). IOS Press, Amsterdam
Chen Z, Xie S, Li W (2011) Reconstruction of stress corrosion crack with multi-frequency ECT signals. Paper presented at the 8th international conference on flow dynamics, Tohoku University, Sendai, 8–12 Oct 2011
Chen H, Xie S, Zhou H, Chen Z (2014) Numerical simulation of magnetic incremental permeability for ferromagnetic material. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech 45:379–386
Chen Z, Yusa N, Miya K (2008) Enhancements of ECT techniques for quantitative nondestructive testing of key structural components of nuclear power plants. Nucl Eng Des 238(7):1651–1656
Chen Z, Yusa N, Miya K (2009) Some advances in numerical analysis techniques for quantitative electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation. Nondestr Test Eval 24(1):69–102
Chen Z, Yusa N, Miya K (2004b) Advanced MFLT for detecting far side defects in a welding part of an austenitic stainless steel plate. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech 19:527–532
Chen Z, Yusa N, Miya K (2004c) Inversion techniques for eddy current NDE using optimization strategies and a rapid 3D forward simulator. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech 20:179–187
Chen Z, Yusa N, Miya K (2006b) Reconstruction of natural stress corrosion crack in coolant tubes from eddy current testing signals. Stud Appl Electromagn Mech 26:197–204
Davis J (1996) Nondestructive evaluation and quality control. ASM Int, Materials Park
Dodd CV (1977) The use of computer modelling in Eddy current testing. Res Tech Nondestr Test 2:429–479
Dodd C, Deeds W (1968) Analytical solutions to eddy-current probe-coil problems. J Appl Phys 39:2829–2838
Demerdash NA, Nehl TW (1978) An evaluation of the methods of finite elements and finite differences in the solution of nonlinear electromagnetic fields in electrical machines. IEEE Trans Power Appar Syst 98(1):74–87
Forster F (1959) Nondestructive testing handbook, vol 2, 1st edn. Am Soc Nondestr Test, Columbus, pp 36–42
Fuller E (2006) Steam generator integrity assessment guidelines, Rev 2, Report No.101298. Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto
Fukutomi H, Takagi T, Tani J (1998) Three-dimensional finite element computation of a remote field eddy current technique to non-magnetic tubes. J JSAEM 6:343–349
Hagemaier DK (1985) Eddy-current standard depth of penetration. Mater Eval 10(43):1438–1454
Harvey ED (1995) Eddy current testing: theory and practice, ASNT reference manual. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus
Hayt HW (2006) Engineering electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill, New York
Haus H, Melcher J (1989) Electromagnetic fields and energy. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Hellier C (2003) Handbook of nondestructive evaluation. Mcgraw-Hill, New York
Hughes DV (1879) Induction-balance and experimental researches therewith. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 8:50–56
Huang L, He R, Zeng Z et al (2012) An extended iterative finite element model for simulating eddy current testing of aircraft skin structure. IEEE Trans Magn 48(7):2161–2165
He Y, Luo F, Pan M (2010) Pulsed eddy current technique for defect detection in aircraft riveted structures. NDT & E Int 43(2):176–181
Hernandez JH, Pacheco ER, Caleyo F (2012) Rapid estimation of artificial near-side crack dimensions in aluminium using a GMR-based eddy current sensor. NDT&E Int 51(1):94–100
He DF, Shiwa M, Jia JP (2011) Multi-frequency ECT with AMR sensor. NDT & E Int 44(5):438–441
Huang H, Sakurai N, Takagi T (2003) Design of an eddy-current array probe for crack sizing in steam generator tubes. NDT&E Int 36:515–522
Higashi M, Tokuhisa K, Kurokawa M (2008) Development of Eddy current testing technique for PWR Vessel’s dissimilar metal weld. J JSNDI 57(5):232–235
Hashimoto M, Uesaka M, Miya K (1993) Development of magnetic field visualization system using hall device array probe. Sens Mater 4(6):313–321
IAEA Training Course Series (2011) Eddy current testing at level 2: manual for syllabi, IAEA TEC-DOC-628 Rev2. International Atomic Energy Agency, Veinna
Ishibashi K (1995) Eddy current analysis by the boundary integral method. IEEE Trans Magn 31:1500–1503
JSAEM report (1997) Report on Advanced ECT technique, JSAEM-R-9601
Janousek L, Capova K, Gombarska D et al (2009) Recent Trends and Developments in Eddy Current Non-Destructive Sensing. Czech Republic, Cheb
Jomdecha C, Cai W, Xie S Chen Z (2018) Analysis of magnetic flux perturbation due to conductivity variation in equivalent stress-corrosion crack. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech 2018, 59. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAE-171140
Janousek L, Chen Z, Yusa N (2005) Excitation with phase shifted fields-enhancing evaluation of deep cracks in eddy-current testing. NDT&E Int 38:508–515
Jogschies L, Klaas D, Kruppe R et al (2015) Recent developments of Magnetoresistive sensors for industrial applications. Sensors 15:28665–28689
Jander A, Smith C, Shneider R et al (2005) Magnetoresistive sensors for nondestructive evaluation. Paper presented at the 12th International Symposium of Nondestructive Evaluation for Health Monitoring and Diagnostics, San Diego, 8–12 Mar 2005
Kojima F (1997) Numerical scheme for reconstruction of crack shape in SG tubing by using FEMBEM hybrid code and inverse analysis. Trans JSME 63:2650–2656
Kurokawa M (1997) Development of new eddy-current testing probe. Stud Appl Electromagn Mech 12:177–183
Kreutzbruck MV, Krause HJ (2002) HTs squids for the nondestructive evaluation of composite structures. Physica C: Superconduct 368(1–4):70–79
Kosmas K, Sargentis CH, Tsamakis D (2005) Non-destructive evaluation of magnetic metallic materials using hall sensors. Sens Actuators A 161(1–2):359–362
Kim J, Yang G, Udpa L (2010) Classification of pulsed eddy current GMR data on aircraft structures. NDT&E Int 43:141–144
Li Y, Bei Y, Li D, Chen Z (2016) Gradient-field pulsed Eddy current probes for imaging of hidden corrosion in conductive structures. Sens Actuators A 238:251–265
Ludwig R, Dai X (1990) Numerical and analytical modeling of pulsed eddy currents in a conducting half-space. IEEE Trans Magn 26:299–307
Libby HL, Wandling CR (1970) Eddy current multi-parameter test for tube flaws in support region. BNWL-1468
Li W, Xie S, Chen Z (2013) Reconstruction of stress corrosion cracks using signals of pulsed eddy current testing. NDT&E Int 28(2):145–154
MacMaster RC (1963) Nondestructive testing handbook. The Ronald Press, New York
Miya K (1995) Analytical electromagnetics and electromagnetic structures. Yokendo Press, Tokyo
Mottl Z (1990) The quantitative relations between true and standard depth of penetration for air-cored probe coils in eddy current testing. NDT&E Int 23:11–18
Martin JG, Gil JG, Sanchez EV (2011) Non-destructive techniques based on Eddy current testing. Sensors 11(3):2525–2565
Mook G, Hesse O, Uchanin V (2007) Deep penetrating Eddy currents and probes. Mater Test 49:258–264
Maeda K, Shimone J, Harada Y (1997) Optimization of transmit-receive coils for ECT probe with use of the 3-D FEM code. Electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation. IOS Press, Amsterdam. pp 199–206
National Research Council (1997) Aging of U.S. Air Force aircraft. National Academy Press, Washington, DC
Norton SJ, Bowler JR (1993) Theory of eddy current inversion. J Appl Phys 73:501–512
Popa RC, Miya K, Kurokawa M (1997) Optimized eddy current detection of small cracks in steam generator tubing. J Nondestruct Eval 16(3):161–173
Recommanded Practice NO. SNT-TC-1A (2016) Personnel qualification and certification in nondestructive testing. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus
Richard W (1996) Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components, ASME boiler and pressure vessel code section XI. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Ripka P (2003) Advances in fluxgate sensors. Sensors Actuators A 106(1–3):8–14
Rothwell E, Cloud M (2001) Electromagnetics. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Rebican M, Chen Z, Yusa N et al (2005) Investigation of numerical precision of 3D RFECT signal simulation. IEEE Trans Magn 41:1968–1971
Rebican M, Chen Z, Yusa N (2006) Shape reconstruction of multiple cracks from ECT signals by means of a stochastic method. IEEE Trans Magn 42:1079–1082
Reis D, Lambert M, Lesselier D (2002) Eddy-current evaluation of three-dimensional defects in a metal plate. Inverse Prob 18:1857–1871
Ramos H, Postolache O, Alegria F (2009) Using the skin effect to estimate cracks depths in metallic structures. IEEE Instr & Meas Tech 21(12):1361–1366
Pelkner M, Pohl R, Erthner T (2015) Eddy Current Testing with High-Spatial Resolution Probes Using MR Arrays as Receiver. Paper presented at the 7th International Symposium on NDT in Aerospace, Bremen, 16–18 Nov 2015
Ramos HG, Ribeiro AL (2014) Present and future impact of magnetic in NDE. Procedia Eng 86:406–419
Postolache O, Ribeiro A, Ramos H (2012) Uniform Eddy current probe based on GMR sensor Array and image processing for NDT. IEEE Int Instr Measur Tech 8443(3):458–463
Ripka P, Vopalensky M, Platil A (2003) AMR magnetometer. J Magn Magn Mater 254:639–641
Rebican M, Yusa N, Chen Z (2004) Reconstruction of multiple cracks in an ECT round-robin test. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech 19:399–404
Sabbagh H, Sabbagh L (1986) An eddy-current model for three-dimensional inversion. IEEE Trans Magn 22:282–291
Tai C (1971) Dyadic green functions in electromagnetic theory. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Tumanski S (2007) Induction coil sensors- a review. Meas Sci Technol 18(3):R31–R46
Thompson DO, Chimenti DE (1992) Review of Progress in quantitative nondestructive evaluation, vol 15A. Plenum Press, New York, pp 781–788
Takagi T, Huang H, Fukutomi H (1998) Numerical evaluation of correlation between crack size and Eddy current testing signal by a very fast simulator. IEEE Trans Magn 34(5):2581–2584
Takagi T, Hashimoto H, Fukutomi H (1994) Benchmark models of eddy current testing for steam generator tube: experiment and numerical analysis. Int J Appl Electromag in Materials 4(5):149–162
Tegopoulos JA, Kriezis EE (1985) Eddy current in linear conducting media. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Tian GY, Li Y, Mandache C (2009) Study of lift-off invariance for pulsed Eddy-current signals. IEEE Trans Magn 45:184–191
Tamburrino A, Rubinacci G (2002) A new non-iteration inversion method for electrical resistance tomography. Inverse Prob 18:1809–1829
Takagi T, Uesaka M, Miya K (1997a) Electromagnetic NDE research activities in JSAEM. Stud Appl Electromagn Mech 12:9–16
Takagi T, Uesaka M, Miya K (1997b) Electromagnetic NDE research activities in JSAEM, electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation. IOS Press, Amsterdam. pp 9–16
Udpa S, Moore P (2004) Nondestructive testing handbook: electromagnetic testing, 3rd edn. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, Ohio
Xie S (2012) Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation of Pipe Wall Thinning Using Pulsed Eddy Current Testing. Dissertation, Tohoku University
Xie S, Chen Z, Takagi T et al (2011) Efficient numerical solver for simulation of pulsed Eddy current testing signals. IEEE Trans Magn 47:4582–4591
Yusa N, Chen Z, Miya K (2000) Quantitative profile evaluation of natural crack in steam generator tube from eddy current signals. Int J Appl Electromagn Mech 12:139–150
Yusa N, Chen Z, Miya K (2003) Large scale parallel computation for the reconstruction of natural stress corrosion cracks from eddy current testing signals. NDT&E Int 36:449–459
Yusa N, Chen Z, Miya K (2005) Sizing of stress corrosion cracks in piping of austenitic stainless steel from eddy current NDT signals. Nondestruct Test Eval 20:103–114
Yusa N, Perrin S, Mizuno K (2007a) Eddy current inspection of closed fatigue and stress corrosion cracks. Meas Sci Technol 18:3403–3408
Yusa N, Perrin S, Mizuno K (2007b) Numerical modeling of general cracks from the viewpoint of eddy current simulations. NDT&E Int 40:577–583
Zenglu S, Tsutomu Y, Hideki S (2011) Detection of damage and crack in railhead by using eddy current testing. J Electromagn Anal Appl 3:546–550
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Chen, Z., Jomdecha, C., Xie, S. (2019). Eddy Current Testing. In: Ida, N., Meyendorf, N. (eds) Handbook of Advanced Non-Destructive Evaluation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30050-4_40-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30050-4_40-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-30050-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-30050-4
eBook Packages: Springer Reference EngineeringReference Module Computer Science and Engineering