Keywords

1 Introduction

Electric energy has been commercially available in Sudan since 1908 using fossil fuel. In 1926, the Sennar Dam, also known as ‘Sinnar’, was built for crop irrigation. With a height of 40 m, the first hydro-electric power station was in operation.

Following Sinnar, many dams were built—Jabal Awlia in 1937, Khashm Al-Girba in 1964, Roseires in 1966, and more recently, Merowe in 2009. The dams were multi-purposely imitated and are now producing 56.8 % of generated electricity with more projects under construction to enhance the output.

Generally, the output of generated electricity has been increasing at the rate of 12 % per annum since 2002 and reached 9,339,8 GWh in 2012 with hydro constituting 71 % [1].

A key factor for the realization of the Merowe Dam project, with 1250 MWh generating capacity, was the ability of Sudan to export oil in commercial quantities in 1999/2000.

With an electrification ratio of 34 % and 283 kWh/year electricity use per capita, Sudan has a long way to go to fulfill its aspirations in this field, especially at a time when the proceeds from petroleum are dwindling due to the secession of South Sudan.

Other renewable energy sources were surveyed with potential capacities and locations, which resulted in the formation of the following:

  • Wind Atlas

  • Solar Atlas

  • Waste to energy feasibility studies

  • Geothermal energy studies

A few projects emanating from the above were identified after appropriate investigation to feed into the national grid.

However, with its vast area of 1,890,000 km2, extending from north to south at a length of 1950 km and from east to west at a length 2200 km, this constitutes a rural population to reach approximately 60 % of the total population.

As most of the electric power generated is along the sides of the River Nile where most of the urban population is situated, the national grid embodies only a total length of 8560 km of high voltage transmission lines.

Thus, it is clear that the majority of the population is rural, utilizing most of the land for animal raising and rain-fed agricultural development schemes. As such, the major contributor to the country’s economy is situated far from the current energy sources and is isolated from the grid.

Hence, a Rural Electrification Project was launched which aims to supply the rural residents in off-grid areas with electricity through Solar Home Systems (SHS) [1], with the following features:

To target 1.1 million SHS, benefiting 5.5 million people (i.e. 16 % of the population) between 2013 and 2032.

The estimated budget is 700 million USD and the project will be executed by the government-owned Sudanese Electricity Distribution Company (SEDC). It is worth noting that this project came about as a result of preliminary work which started in 1999; without it, the project may not have come into existence. The initiative is called ‘Barrier Removal to Secure PV Market Penetration in Semi-Urban Sudan’ or ‘PVP’. It targeted 1000 villages with a total budget of 2.5 million USD. Its execution removed barriers, increased confidence and led to the rural electrification PV project with a budget of 700 million USD.

We outline the PVP project, which had a huge impact on the prevailing strategies that followed, and discuss the possibility of it being reproduced elsewhere under similar conditions. It enhanced South/South cooperation, paved the way for a smooth transition, and minimized mistakes and time lapse. It made use of international organisations and professional agencies.

2 The PVP: Barrier Removal to Secure PV Market Penetration in Semi-Urban Sudan

Solar PV applications in Sudan started as early as 1970. These projects were executed through foreign financial support. Table 49.1 presents some of these projects.

Table 49.1 Some of the projects that preceded the PVP
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Mosques, khalwas, community centres and water resources were targeted. The PVP was initiated to remove the barriers that hindered market penetration of PV applications in general and households in particular.

The PVP is a project funded jointly by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), and the Ministry of Energy and Mining [2]

It is supposed to meet the growing suppressed demand for electric energy in semi-urban Sudan through reliable win-win domestic PV systems as a substitute for fossil-based generating units. This is to be achieved by removing a number of critical barriers that inhibited the use of PV systems, thus enabling market penetration of this technology in the targeted areas.

It was assumed that the barriers removed would contribute to the establishment of a sustainable foundation for the use of this proven technology as a viable option for rural and semi-urban electrification, resulting in the long-term reduction of carbon-dioxide emissions.

The main objective of the PVP was to remove the five identified critical barriers that inhibited market penetration of PV technology. These are:

  1. 1.

    Market infrastructure and policy barriers

  2. 2.

    Information and awareness barriers

  3. 3.

    Technical and know-how barriers

  4. 4.

    Financial barriers

  5. 5.

    Institutional barriers

An independent entity was formed to implement the project, assisted by a technical committee, which met regularly; thus, keeping stakeholders informed of the progress. It operated through 16 focal offices covering 13 states.

3 Policy and Institution Barriers

Energy use in Sudan relies heavily on traditional fuels, mainly charcoal and firewood. Oil is also used as a commercial source of energy, especially diesel generators in rural areas.

The goal of the PVP was to improve the quality of life both environmentally and economically and to remove any barriers that prevented this goal being achieved.

Fossil fuel-generating electricity systems in rural areas receive a 30 % reduction in import taxes compared to zero tax for PV systems. In addition to the taxes, solar panels are usually produced in developed countries and then transported through difficult terrains to semi-urban areas in developing countries, which adds to the cost and logistic problems.

As PV systems incur high start-up costs coupled with lack of financing, banks were not traditionally involved in financing PV projects.

A Solar Act which encouraged easing regulations regarding the use of renewable energy technologies in general, and PV in particular, was prepared in cooperation with the Energy Committee of the National Assembly to favour PVP in general and encourage its promotion in particular.

The Ministries of Physical Planning and Public Utilities in the different States established renewable energy divisions. The focal points include these divisions.

The Act, together with the formation of these divisions, helped in the removal of most of the barriers.

The private sector was encouraged to import PVP equipment through the formation of companies and involvement in focal points.

4 Information and Awareness

Television, radio stations, seminars and newspapers were all utilized to spread and deepen awareness of renewable energy technology (RET) and PVP among the rural population.

In fact, the first meetings took place at the National Assembly (Parliament), and then involved members from the rural areas in the activities. Exhibitions and video releases were used.

Approximately 4500 different activities took place. Some previous projects financed by foreign agencies, which had been neglected, were encouraged by the new policy and were endorsed in the plans. Stakeholders as well as policy makers were also involved.

The activities demonstrated the role of solar energy in refrigeration in health centres and in powering water pumps for humans and animals, and underlined the fact that PV applications were economically viable in many applications if properly sized.

5 Technical and Know-How

Engineers, technicians and those in vocational training centres were trained at the focal points in the technical, economic and environmental aspects of RET in general and PV in particular. Approximately 853 people were trained, both from the private sector and the state. Most importantly a curriculum was established for vocational training centres (VTCs), and some centres close to rural areas were equipped with the necessary training laboratory and workshop equipment.

It should be noted that graduate studies in the field were already established in some universities; however, the real need for rural implementation lay on the shoulders of the vocational trainees.

6 Financial Barriers

The PVP established a specific financing mechanism. A simple credit procedure taking into account the low financial capabilities of the targeted communities was formed. A Memorandum of Understanding for the guarantee fund was signed between the Saving and Social Development Bank, the Agricultural Bank, and the Ministry. A special credit mechanism allowed individuals and group users to purchase PV systems. A microfinance system was established at federal and state levels for a credit mechanism.

7 Results as Evaluations and Assessments

The PVP, which was subject to scrutiny and evaluation from independent professional expertise in all elements, paved the way for rural PV electrification and other developments.

When the socio-economic and environmental impact of the PV applications was assessed [3], the reaction of the rural population to the use of solar systems was found to be positive. Villagers were able to organise meetings in the evenings, children’s performance at schools improved, and health care was extended to deal with night emergencies. Awareness of what is going on the outside world increased because of television sets. Agricultural and commercial businesses were enhanced through telecommunications.

Reference [3] developed indicators to measure and assess the long-term socio-economic impact of PV system applications. These applications included health, education, telecommunication, water and community centres. Their general format is shown in Table 49.2.

Table 49.2 Indicators to measure and assess the long-term socio-economic impact of PV system applications
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Removal of the financial barriers was assessed through the Guarantee Fund Financing Mechanism [4]. It was found in some offices that the disbursement exceeded 100 % of the allotted fund by recycling the repayments and utilizing bank resources.

The Agricultural Bank increased its contribution to the Guarantee Fund from 50 to 150 %. The Saving Development Banks increased its contribution from 50 to 75 %. More bank branches showed interest in future financing.

PV training in VTCs was evaluated [5]. It was found that the new curriculum on PV technology was in agreement with the objectives and contents of the existing engineering curriculum of the VTC. Training materials were designed. It goes without saying that the establishment of relevant PV training at VTCs is a key element to sustainability.

Many other assessment reports were prepared.

A final evaluation for the project [6] noted many details, some of which are mentioned below.

At the moment the contribution of the PVP system to the carbon-free environment is negligible but will be more important with future development and further applications.

PV system applications proved to be:

  • Beneficial to social and economic development.

  • An ideal solution to energy problems in the vast rural areas of Sudan.

  • An important factor in poverty reduction.

Sustainability of these applications is easily achieved through:

  • The importance of the role of project partners and stakeholders.

  • The capacity of the local institutions to manage the process of market development and to ensure a full ownership of such processes.

  • The sustainability of the microfinance for facilitating the access of rural communities and individuals to PV systems and clean energy.

Most important, the possibility of replication or scale-up of the PVP experience enhanced and will continue to enhance sustainability.

Government policy makers encouraged the State Government to adopt solar PV in their annual development plans, and support non-grid connected areas with PV services for agriculture, social services, schools offices and portable water.

[6] reported the findings of the Auditor General Report regarding the different PVP accounts, that is, United Nations Development Programme, governments and banks involved. The audit report included Adequacy of Financial Operations and Controls; Adequacy of Management Structure and Control; Non-Expendable Equipment; the Bank Guarantee Fund; Monitoring and Evaluation Report; and the Performance Audit and Executive Summary of audit findings and recommendations. It concluded that the findings were satisfactory.

8 Rural Electrification; the Photovoltaic Project

The PVP symbolizes the foundation of rural electrification. All previously mentioned efforts and strategies were scaled up to cater for this 700 million USD project. In addition to the previously mentioned community and economic services, solar home systems reach 1.1 million families providing:

  • 100 W: for lightning three lamps, TV, radio and mobile charge

  • 50 W: for lighting three lamps

The financial sponsors are the government, national banks and foreign banks. The loan period is 4 years with a downpayment of 10 %. Job creation is estimated at 10,000—both direct and indirect. After-sales service has created a new business. Reduction in carbon dioxide emission is estimated to be a thousand tons.

The rural electrification project extends from 2012 to 2031 in 5-year phases subject to evaluation and improvement with developments in the field of PVs.

One of the earliest achievements of this project is a simple experiment conducted on a farm with real data, as shown in Fig. 49.1.

Fig. 49.1
figure 1

The initial costs and operating costs are shown for pump (A), diesel power and pump (B) solar power. A water well with a 67.5-m head irrigates 10 acres of land. The costs are the same for discharge.

Pump (A): total cost paid in cash. Maintenance cost approximated as linear.

Pump (B): 50 % paid cash; 50 % paid in equal installments over 2 years. Maintenance free for 5 years. After 5 years, the operating cost of (A) increased tremendously while the cost of (B) increased but at a lesser rate.

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9 Conclusive Remarks

The authorities have successfully ensured the sustainability of rural electrification through PV technology. First, the barriers were identified, analysed and a plan was formulated to remove them. Implementation was started, monitored and provided feedback. Assessments and evaluations were carried out and were followed by replication and scaling up.

This took place when the cost of PV systems was dropping exponentially and their use and output power was rising exponentially.

This can be considered as a contribution to South/South cooperation by replicating and scaling up these efforts elsewhere.

It is suggested that a regional conference for WREC/WREN be held in Khartoum to share the experiences of the region, and to narrow the gap between the developing and developed countries in the field of renewable energy technology, especially solar energy.