Abstract
Development is a continuous process that does not stop after birth but progresses along a continuum. The intestinal absorptive process is only partially mature before 26 weeks of gestation, and gastroenteropancreatic peptides and hormones are secreted in a basal rate and can be completely stimulated or inhibited after delivery, in particular with the nutrient contact. A growing knowledge about this complex interplay among nutrients, gut peptides, and the gut under development is an important tool in the clinical care of preterm newborns. The investigation of this system in fetal and neonatal life is still ongoing. This chapter will review the data about secretion of gut peptides (GLP-1, GLP-2, oxyntomodulin, GIP, PYY, ghrelin, obestatin, motilin, and cholecystokinin) in the neonatal period with respect to full-term or preterm birth, weight status, and feeding conditions. More detailed studies on this topic could offer the physiological basis for correct nutritional supports to preterm infants as well as therapies for the necrotizing enterocolitis.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams SH, Lei C, Jodka CM et al (2006) PYY[3-36] administration decreases the respiratory quotient and reduces adiposity in diet-induced obese mice. J Nutr 136:195–201
Adrian TE, Smith HA, Calvert SA et al (1986) Elevated plasma peptide YY in human neonates and infants. Pediatr Res 20:1225–1227
Agostoni C (2005) Ghrelin, leptin and the neurometabolic axis of breastfed and formula-fed infants. Acta Paediatr 94:523–525
Althage MC, Ford EL, Wang S et al (2008) Targeted ablation of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide-producing cells in transgenic mice reduces obesity and insulin resistance induced by a high fat diet. J Biol Chem 283:18365–18376
Amato A, Baldassano S, Mulè F (2016) GLP2: an underestimated signal for improving glycaemic control and insulin sensitivity. J Endocrinol 229:R57–R66
Amin H, Holst JJ, Hartmann B et al (2008) Functional ontogeny of the proglucagon-derived peptide axis in the premature human neonate. Pediatrics 121:e180–e186
Bahrami J, Longuet C, Baggio LL et al (2010) The glucagon-like peptide-2 receptor modulates islet adaptation to metabolic stress in the ob/ob mouse. Gastroenterology 139:857–868
Baldassano S, Amato A (2014) GLP-2: what do we know? What are we going to discover? Regul Pept 194-195:6–10
Baldassano S, Rappa F, Amato A et al (2015) GLP-2 as beneficial factor in the glucose homeostasis in mice fed a high fat diet. J Cell Physiol 230:3029–3036
Baldassano S, Amato A, Caldara GF, Mulè F (2016) Glucagon-like peptide-2 treatment improves glucose dysmetabolism in mice fed a high fat diet. Endocrine 54(3):648–656
Baldelli R, Bellone S, Castellino N et al (2006) Oral glucose load inhibits circulating ghrelin levels to the same extent in normal and obese children. Clin Endocrinol 64:255–259
Barazzoni R, Zanetti M, Ferreira C et al (2007) Relationships between desacylated and acylated ghrelin and insulin sensitivity in the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:3935–3940
Batterham RL, Cowley MA, Small CJ et al (2002) Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature 418:650–654
Batterham RL, Cohen MA, Ellis SM et al (2003) Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N Engl J Med 349:941–948
Bellone S, Rapa A, Vivenza D et al (2004) Circulating ghrelin levels in the newborn are positively associated with gestational age. Clin Endocrinol 60:613–617
Bellone S, Baldelli R, Radetti G et al (2006) Ghrelin secretion in preterm neonates progressively increases and is refractory to the inhibitory effect of food intake. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:1929–1933
Bellone S, Prodam F, Savastio S et al (2012a) Acylated and unacylated ghrelin levels in normal weight and obese children: influence of puberty and relationship with insulin, leptin and adiponectin levels. J Endocrinol Investig 35(2):191–197
Bellone S, Prodam F, Savastio S et al (2012b) Acylated/unacylated ghrelin ratio in cord blood: correlation with anthropometric and metabolic parameters and pediatric lifespan comparison. Eur J Endocrinol 166:115–120
Berseth CL, Nordyke CK, Valdes MG et al (1992) Responses of gastrointestinal peptides and motor activity to milk and water feedings in preterm and term infants. Pediatr Res 31:587–590
Bideci A, Camurdan MO, Yesilkaya E et al (2008) Serum ghrelin, leptin and resistin levels in adolescent girls with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 34:578–584
Boutsikou T, Briana DD, Boutsikou M et al (2013) Cord blood chemerin and obestatin levels in large for gestational age infants. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 26(2):123–126
Broglio F, Gottero C, Prodam F et al (2004) Non-acylated ghrelin counteracts the metabolic but not the neuroendocrine response to acylated ghrelin in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3062–3065
Brøns C, Saltbæk PN, Friedrichsen M et al (2016) Endocrine and metabolic diurnal rhythms in young adult men born small vs appropriate for gestational age. Eur J Endocrinol 175:29–40
Bryant MG, Buchan AM, Gregor M et al (1982) Development of intestinal regulatory peptides in the human fetus. Gastroenterology 83:47–54
Bunt JC, Salbe AD, Tschop MH et al (2003) Cross-sectional and prospective relationships of fasting plasma ghrelin concentrations with anthropometric measures in pima Indian children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:3756–3761
Burrin DG, Stoll B (2002) Key nutrients and growth factors for the neonatal gastrointestinal tract. Clin Perinatol 29:65–96
Calanna S, Christensen M, Holst JJ et al (2013) Secretion of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide in patients with type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. Diabetes Care 36:3346–3352
Cani PD, Possemiers S, Van de Wiele T et al (2009) Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-driven improvement of gut permeability. Gut 58:1091–1103
Cesur G, Ozguner F, Yilmaz N, Dundar B (2012) The relationship between ghrelin and adiponectin levels in breast milk and infant serum and growth of infants during early postnatal life. J Physiol Sci 62(3):185–190
Chanoine JP, Yeung LP, Wong AC, Birmingham CL (2002) Immunoreactive ghrelin in human cord blood: relation to anthropometry, leptin, and growth hormone. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 35:282–286
Chaudhri OB, Wynne K, Bloom SR (2008) Can gut hormones control appetite and prevent obesity? Diabetes Care 31(Suppl 2):S284–S289
Chen X, Du X, Zhu J et al (2012) Correlations of circulating peptide YY and ghrelin with body weight, rate of weight gain, and time required to achieve the recommended daily intake in preterm infants. Braz J Med Biol Res 45:656–664
Chiesa C, Osborn JF, Haass C et al (2008) Ghrelin, leptin, IGF-1, IGFBP-3, and insulin concentrations at birth: is there a relationship with foetal growth and neonatal anthropometry? Clin Chem 54:550–558
Choi K, Roh SG, Hong YH et al (2003) The role of ghrelin and growth hormone secretagogues receptor on rat adipogenesis. Endocrinology 144:754–759
Cohen MA, Ellis SM, le Roux CW et al (2003) Oxyntomodulin suppresses appetite and reduces food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:4696–4701
Corpeleijn WE, van Vliet I, de Gast-Bakker DA et al (2008) Effect of enteral IGF-1 supplementation on feeding tolerance, growth, and gut permeability in enterally fed premature neonates. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 46:184–190
Cortelazzi D, Cappiello V, Morpurgo PS et al (2003) Circulating levels of ghrelin in human fetuses. Eur J Endocrinol 149:111–116
Covasa M, Marcuson JK, Ritter RC (2001) Diminished satiation in rats exposed to elevated levels of endogenous or exogenous cholecystokinin. Am J Phys Regul Integr Comp Phys 280:R331–R337
Cummings DE, Weigle DS, Frayo RS et al (2002) Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 346:1623–1630
Dakin CL, Gunn I, Small CJ et al (2001) Oxyntomodulin inhibits food intake in the rat. Endocrinology 142:4244–4250
Dakin CL, Small CJ, Batterham RL et al (2004) Peripheral oxyntomodulin reduces food intake and body weight gain in rats. Endocrinology 145:2687–2695
Dasopoulou M, Briana DD, Boutsikou T et al (2015) Motilin and gastrin secretion and lipid profile in preterm neonates following prebiotics supplementation: a double-blind randomized controlled study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 39(3):359–368
De Clercq P, Springer S, Depoortere I, Peeters TL (1998) Motilin in human milk: identification and stability during digestion. Life Sci 63:1993–2000
de Moura EG, Lisboa PC, Passos MC (2008) Neonatal programming of neuroimmunomodulation–role of adipocytokines and neuropeptides. Neuroimmunomodulation 15:176–188
Degen L, Oesch S, Casanova M et al (2005) Effect of peptide YY3-36 on food intake in humans. Gastroenterology 129:1430–1436
Delhanty PJ, Neggers SJ, van der Lely AJ (2012) Mechanisms in endocrinology: ghrelin: the differences between acyl- and des-acyl ghrelin. Eur J Endocrinol 167:601–608
Díaz M, Bassols J, Sebastiani G et al (2015) Circulating GLP-1 in infants born small-for-gestational-age: breast-feeding versus formula-feeding. Int J Obes 39:1501–1503
Dong CX, Zhao W, Solomon C et al (2014) The intestinal epithelial insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor links glucagon-like peptide-2 action to gut barrier function. Endocrinology 155:370–379
Drucker DJ (2002) Biological actions and therapeutic potential of the glucagon-like peptides. Gastroenterology 122:531–544
Drucker DJ, Yusta B (2014) Physiology and pharmacology of the enteroendocrine hormone glucagon-like peptide-2. Annu Rev Physiol 76:561–583
Du X, Kosinski JR, Lao J et al (2012) Differential effects of oxyntomodulin and GLP-1 on glucose metabolism. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 303:E265–E271
Fallucca F, Kuhl C, Lauritsen KB et al (1985) Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) concentration in human amniotic fluid. Horm Metab Res 17:251–255
Flatt PR (2007) Effective surgical treatment of obesity may be mediated by ablation of the lipogenic gut hormone gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP): evidence and clinical opportunity for development of new obesity-diabetes drugs? Diab Vasc Dis Res 4:151–153
Flatt PR (2008) Dorothy Hodgkin Lecture 2008. Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) revisited: a new therapeutic target for obesity-diabetes? Diabet Med 25:759–764
Garcia-Diaz D, Campion J, Milagro FI, Martinez JA (2007) Adiposity dependent apelin gene expression: relationships with oxidative and inflammation markers. Mol Cell Biochem 305:87–94
Gardiner JV, Jayasena CN, Bloom SR (2008) Gut hormones: a weight off your mind. J Neuroendocrinol 20:834–841
Gault VA, Irwin N, Green BD et al (2005) Chemical ablation of gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor action by daily (Pro3)GIP administration improves glucose tolerance and ameliorates insulin resistance and abnormalities of islet structure in obesity-related diabetes. Diabetes 54:2436–2446
Gauna C, Delhanty PJ, Hofland LJ et al (2005) Ghrelin stimulates, whereas des-octanoyl ghrelin inhibits, glucose output by primary hepatocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:1055–1060
Geloneze B, Lima MM, Pareja JC et al (2013) Association of insulin resistance and GLP-2 secretion in obesity: a pilot study. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 57:632–635
Ghigo E, Arvat E, Giordano R et al (2001) Biologic activities of growth hormone secretagogues in humans. Endocrine 14:87–93
Gibbs J, Young RC, Smith GP (1973) Cholecystokinin decreases food intake in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol 84:488–495
Gil-Campos M, Aguilera CM, Canete R, Gil A (2006) Ghrelin: a hormone regulating food intake and energy homeostasis. Br J Nutr 96:201–226
Gourcerol G, St-Pierre DH, Tache Y (2007) Lack of obestatin effects on food intake: should obestatin be renamed ghrelin-associated peptide (GAP)? Regul Pept 141:1–7
Grigoryan M, Kedees MH, Guz Y, Teitelman G (2012) Phenotype of entero-endocrine L cells becomes restricted during development. Dev Dyn 241:1986–1992
Gualillo O, Caminos J, Blanco M et al (2001) Ghrelin, a novel placental-derived hormone. Endocrinology 142:788–794
Guan X, Shi X, Li X, Chang B et al (2012) GLP-2 receptor in POMC neurons suppresses feeding behavior and gastric motility. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 303:E853–E864
Han L, Li M, Yu X et al (2014) Assay of adiponectin, leptin, true insulin and ghrelin levels in preterm human milk, and its relationship with infants growth. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 52(7):510–515
Harada T, Nakahara T, Yasuhara D et al (2008) Obestatin, acyl ghrelin, and des-acyl ghrelin responses to an oral glucose tolerance test in the restricting type of anorexia nervosa. Biol Psychiatry 63:245–247
Heijboer AC, Pijl H, Van den Hoek AM et al (2006) Gut-brain axis: regulation of glucose metabolism. J Neuroendocrinol 18:883–894
Hellstrom PM, Geliebter A, Naslund E et al (2004) Peripheral and central signals in the control of eating in normal, obese and binge-eating human subjects. Br J Nutr 92(Suppl 1):S47–S57
Heptulla RA, Tamborlane WV, Cavaghan M et al (2000) Augmentation of alimentary insulin secretion despite similar gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) responses in juvenile obesity. Pediatr Res 47:628–633
Higgins PB, Fernandez JR, Garvey WT et al (2008) Entero-insular axis and postprandial insulin differences in African American and European American children. Am J Clin Nutr 88:1277–1283
Hill ME, Asa SL, Drucker DJ (1999) Essential requirement for Pax6 in control of enteroendocrine proglucagon gene transcription. Mol Endocrinol 13:1474–1486
Holst JJ (2007) The physiology of glucagon-like peptide 1. Physiol Rev 87:1409–1439
Holst B, Egerod KL, Schild E et al (2007) GPR39 signaling is stimulated by zinc ions but not by obestatin. Endocrinology 148:13–20
Hubler A, Rippel C, Kauf E et al (2006) Associations between ghrelin levels in serum of preterm infants and enteral nutritional state during the first 6 months after birth. Clin Endocrinol 65:611–616
Ilcol YO, Hizli B (2007) Active and total ghrelin concentrations increase in breast milk during lactation. Acta Paediatr 96:1632–1639
Irwin N, Flatt PR (2015) New perspectives on exploitation of incretin peptides for the treatment of diabetes and related disorders. World J Diabetes 6:1285–1295
Itoh Z (1997) Motilin and clinical application. Peptides 18:593–608
James RJ, Drewett RF, Cheetham TD (2004) Low cord ghrelin levels in term infants are associated with slow weight gain over the first 3 months of life. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3847–3850
Janik JS, Track NS, Filler RM (1982) Motilin, human pancreatic polypeptide, gastrin, and insulin plasma concentrations in fasted children. J Pediatr 101:51–56
Jia X, Brown JC, Ma P et al (1995) Effects of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and glucagon-like peptide-I-(7-36) on insulin secretion. Am J Phys 268:E645–E651
Kahveci H, Laloglu F, Kilic O, Ciftel M, Kara M, Laloglu E, Yildirim A, Orbak Z, Ertekin V, Cesur Y (2015) Fasting and postprandial glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin values in preterm babies and their mothers: relationships among their levels, foetal growth, and neonatal anthropometry. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 28(8):916–921
Kalies H, Heinrich J, Borte N et al (2005) The effect of breastfeeding on weight gain in infants: results of a birth cohort study. Eur J Med Res 10:36–42
Kasa-Vubu JZ, Rosenthal A, Murdock EG, Welch KB (2007) Impact of fatness, fitness, and ethnicity on the relationship of nocturnal ghrelin to 24-hour luteinizing hormone concentrations in adolescent girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:3246–3252
Kawamata R, Suzuki Y, Yada Y et al (2014) Gut hormone profiles in preterm and term infants during the first 2 months of life. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 27(7–8):717–723
Kawamata R, Suzuki Y, Yada Y et al (2015) Gut hormones of preterm infants with abdominal symptoms and hypothyroxinemia. Pediatr Int 57:614–619
Kim SJ, Nian C, Karunakaran S et al (2012) GIP-overexpressing mice demonstrate reduced diet-induced obesity and steatosis, and improved glucose homeostasis. PLoS One 7:e40156
King KC, Oliven A, Kalhan SC (1989) Functional enteroinsular axis in full-term newborn infants. Pediatr Res 25:490–495
Knip M, Kaapa P, Koivisto M (1993) Hormonal enteroinsular axis in newborn infants of insulin-treated diabetic mothers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:1340–1344
Kojima M, Kangawa K (2005) Ghrelin: structure and function. Physiol Rev 85:495–522
Konturek SJ, Konturek JW, Pawlik T, Brzozowski T (2004) Brain-gut axis and its role in the control of food intake. J Physiol Pharmacol 55:137–154
Lambeir AM, Durinx C, Scharpe S, De Meester I (2003) Dipeptidyl-peptidase IV from bench to bedside: an update on structural properties, functions, and clinical aspects of the enzyme DPP IV. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 40:209–294
Lanyi E, Varnagy A, Kovacs KA et al (2008) Ghrelin and acyl ghrelin in preterm infants and maternal blood: relationship with endocrine and anthropometric measures. Eur J Endocrinol 158:27–33
Lebenthal A, Lebenthal E (1999) The ontogeny of the small intestinal epithelium. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 23:S3–S6
Leite-Moreira AF, Soares JB (2007) Physiological, pathological and potential therapeutic roles of ghrelin. Drug Discov Today 12:276–288
Lothe L, Ivarsson SA, Lindberg T (1987) Motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide and gastrin in infantile colic. Acta Paediatr Scand 76:316–320
Lu M, Wheeler MB, Leng XH, Boyd AE III (1993) Stimulation of insulin secretion and insulin gene expression by gastric inhibitory polypeptide. Trans Assoc Am Phys 106:42–53
Lucas A, Sarson DL, Bloom SR, Aynsley-Green A (1980) Developmental aspects of gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) and its possible role in the enteroinsular axis in neonates. Acta Paediatr Scand 69:321–325
Mahmoud EL, Benirschke K, Vaucher YE, Poitras P (1988) Motilin levels in term neonates who have passed meconium prior to birth. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 7:95–99
Marchini G, Linden A (1992) Cholecystokinin, a satiety signal in newborn infants? J Dev Physiol 17:215–219
Martin GR, Beck PL, Sigalet DL (2006) Gut hormones, and short bowel syndrome: the enigmatic role of glucagon-like peptide-2 in the regulation of intestinal adaptation. World J Gastroenterol 12:4117–4129
Mechanick JI, Kushner RF, Sugerman HJ et al (2008) American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, the obesity Society, and American Society for Metabolic & Bariatric Surgery Medical guidelines for clinical practice for the perioperative nutritional, metabolic, and nonsurgical support of the bariatric surgery patient. Endocr Pract 14(Suppl 1):1–83
Misra M, Miller KK, Cord J et al (2007) Relationships between serum adipokines, insulin levels, and bone density in girls with anorexia nervosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:2046–2052
Misra M, Prabhakaran R, Miller KK et al (2008) Prognostic indicators of changes in bone density measures in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa-II. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:1292–1297
Mitrovic O, Cokic V, Dikic D et al (2014) Ghrelin receptors in human gastrointestinal tract during prenatal and early postnatal development. Peptides 57:1–11
Moran TH (2000) Cholecystokinin and satiety: current perspectives. Nutrition 16:858–865
Müller TD, Nogueiras R, Andermann ML et al (2015) Ghrelin. Mol Metab 4:437–460
Mulvihill SJ, Stone MM, Debas HT, Fonkalsrud EW (1985) The role of amniotic fluid in foetal nutrition. J Pediatr Surg 20:668–672
Nagasaki H, Ohta T (2015) Extra-uterine growth and adipocytokines in appropriate-for-gestational-age preterm infants. Pediatr Int. doi:10.1111/ped.12896
Nagata E, Nakagawa Y, Yamaguchi R et al (2011) Altered gene expressions of ghrelin, PYY, and CCK in the gastrointestinal tract of the hyperphagic intrauterine growth restriction rat offspring. Horm Metab Res 43(3):178–182
Naitoh R, Miyawaki K, Harada N et al (2008) Inhibition of GIP signaling modulates adiponectin levels under high-fat diet in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 376:21–25
Nakahara T, Harada T, Yasuhara D et al (2008) Plasma obestatin concentrations are negatively correlated with body mass index, insulin resistance index, and plasma leptin concentrations in obesity and anorexia nervosa. Biol Psychiatry 64:252–255
Naslund E, Barkeling B, King N et al (1999) Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in obese men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23:304–311
Neary NM, Goldstone AP, Bloom SR (2004) Appetite regulation: from the gut to the hypothalamus. Clin Endocrinol 60:153–160
Nishikubo T, Yamakawa A, Kamitsuji H et al (2005) Identification of the motilin cells in duodenal epithelium of premature infants. Pediatr Int 47(3):248–251
O'Mahony SM, Felice VD, Nally K et al (2014) Disturbance of the gut microbiota in early-life selectively affects visceral pain in adulthood without impacting cognitive or anxiety-related behaviors in male rats. Neuroscience 277:885–901
Ozaki T, Mohammad S, Morioka E et al (2013) Infant satiety depends on transient expression of cholecystokinin-1 receptors on ependymal cells lining the third ventricle in mice. J Physiol 591(5):1295–1312
Ozer EA, Holst JJ, Duman N et al (2009) The relationship between glucagon-like peptide 2 and feeding intolerance in preterm infants. J Trop Pediatr 55:276–277
Padidela R, Patterson M, Sharief N et al (2009) Elevated basal and post-feed glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) concentrations in the neonatal period. Eur J Endocrinol 160:53–58
Paik KH, Choe YH, Park WH et al (2006) Suppression of acylated ghrelin during oral glucose tolerance test is correlated with whole-body insulin sensitivity in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:1876–1881
Pais R, Gribble FM, Reimann F (2016) Stimulation of incretin secreting cells. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab 7:24–42
Perala MM, Kajantie E, Valsta LM et al (2013) Early growth and postprandial appetite regulatory hormone responses. Br J Nutr 110:1591–1600
Persaud SJ, Bewick GA (2014) Peptide YY: more than just an appetite regulator. Diabetologia 57:1762–1769
Pocai A (2013) Action and therapeutic potential of oxyntomodulin. Mol Metab 3:241–251
Poitras P, Peeters TL (2008) Motilin. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 15:54–57
Pomerants T, Tillmann V, Jurimae J, Jurimae T (2006) Relationship between ghrelin and anthropometrical, body composition parameters and testosterone levels in boys at different stages of puberty. J Endocrinol Investig 29:962–967
Prodam F, Filigheddu N (2014) Ghrelin gene products in acute and chronic inflammation. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 62(5):369–3684
Prodam F, Me E, Riganti F et al (2006) The nutritional control of ghrelin secretion in humans: the effects of enteral vs. parenteral nutrition. Eur J Nutr 45:399–405
Prodam F, Bellone S, Corneli G et al (2008) Ghrelin: a molecular target for weight regulation, glucose and lipid metabolism. Recent Patents Endocrine Metab Immune Drug Discov 2(3):1–1
Prodam F, Bellone S, Ricotti R et al (2011) Ghrelin regulation in epilepsy. Underlying mechanisms of epilepsy. InTech, Prof. Fatima Shad Kaneez (ed). ISBN:978–953–307-765-9, pp 151–180. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/underlying-mechanisms-ofepilepsy/ghrelin-regulation-in-epilepsy
Prodam F, Monzani A, Ricotti R et al (2014a) Systematic review of ghrelin response to food intake in pediatric age, from neonates to adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99(5):1556–1568
Prodam F, Cadario F, Bellone S et al (2014b) Obestatin levels are associated with C-peptide and antiinsulin antibodies at the onset, whereas unacylated and acylated ghrelin levels are not predictive of long-term metabolic control in children with type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99(4):E599–E607
Qader SS, Hakanson R, Rehfeld JF et al (2008) Proghrelin-derived peptides influence the secretion of insulin, glucagon, pancreatic polypeptide and somatostatin: a study on isolated islets from mouse and rat pancreas. Regul Pept 146:230–237
Ranganath LR (2008a) The entero-insular axis: implications for human metabolism. Clin Chem Lab Med 46:43–56
Ranganath LR (2008b) Incretins: pathophysiological and therapeutic implications of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and glucagon-like peptide-1. J Clin Pathol 61:401–409
Savino F, Fissore MF, Grassino EC et al (2005) Ghrelin, leptin and IGF-I levels in breast-fed and formula-fed infants in the first years of life. Acta Paediatr 94:531–537
Savino F, Grassino EC, Fissore MF et al (2006a) Ghrelin, motilin, insulin concentration in healthy infants in the first months of life: relation to fasting time and anthropometry. Clin Endocrinol 65:158–162
Savino F, Grassino EC, Guidi C et al (2006b) Ghrelin and motilin concentration in colicky infants. Acta Paediatr 95:738–741
Savino F, Lupica MM, Liguori SA et al (2012a) Ghrelin and feeding behaviour in preterm infants. Early Hum Dev 88:S51–S55
Savino F, Benetti S, Lupica MM et al (2012b) Ghrelin and obestatin in infants, lactating mothers and breast milk. Horm Res Paediatr 78(5–6):297–303
Schmidt PT, Naslund E, Gryback P et al (2003) Peripheral administration of GLP-2 to humans has no effect on gastric emptying or satiety. Regul Pept 116:21–25
Sharman-Koendjbiharie M, Hopman WP, Piena-Spoel M et al (2002) Gut hormones in preterm infants with necrotizing enterocolitis during starvation and reintroduction of enteral nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 35:674–679
Shimizu T, Kitamura T, Yoshikawa N et al (2007) Plasma levels of active ghrelin until 8 weeks after birth in preterm infants: relationship with anthropometric and biochemical measures. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 92:F291–F292
Shoji H, Watanabe A, Ikeda N et al (2016) Influence of gestational age on serum incretin levels in preterm infants. J Dev Orig Health Dis 25:1–4
Shulman DI, Kanarek K (1993) Gastrin, motilin, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor-I concentrations in very-low-birth-weight infants receiving enteral or parenteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 17:130–133
Siahanidou T, Mandyla H, Vounatsou M et al (2005) Circulating peptide YY concentrations are higher in preterm than full-term infants and correlate negatively with body weight and positively with serum ghrelin concentrations. Clin Chem 51:2131–2137
Siahanidou T, Mandyla H, Militsi H et al (2007) Peptide YY (3-36) represents a high percentage of total PYY immunoreactivity in preterm and full-term infants and correlates independently with markers of adiposity and serum ghrelin concentrations. Pediatr Res 62:200–203
Siahanidou T, Margeli A, Tsirogianni C et al (2015) Elevated circulating ghrelin, but not peptide YY(3-36) levels, in term neonates with infection. Clin Chem Lab Med 53(11):1815–1824
Sigalet DL, Martin G, Meddings J et al (2004) GLP-2 levels in infants with intestinal dysfunction. Pediatr Res 56:371–376
Sigalet DL, Brindle M, Boctor D et al (2015) A safety and dosing study of glucagon-like peptide 2 in children with intestinal failure. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 56(3):371–376
Skow MA, Bergmann NC, Knop FK (2016) Diabetes and obesity treatment based on dual incretin receptor activation – “twincretins”. Diabetes Obes Metab 18(9):847–854. doi:10.1111/dom.12685
Soriano-Guillen L, Barrios V, Chowen JA et al (2004) Ghrelin levels from foetal life through early adulthood: relationship with endocrine and metabolic and anthropometric measures. J Pediatr 144:30–35
Spreckley E, Murphy KG (2015) The L-Cell in nutritional sensing and the regulation of appetite. Front Nutr 2:23
Stadlbauer U, Woods SC, Langhans W, Meyer U (2015) PYY3–36: beyond food intake. Front Neuroendocrinol 38:1–11
Stock S, Leichner P, Wong AC et al (2005) Ghrelin, peptide YY, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, and hunger responses to a mixed meal in anorexic, obese, and control female adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:2161–2168
Stoll B, Puiman PJ, Cui L et al (2012) Continuous parenteral and enteral nutrition induces metabolic dysfunction in neonatal pigs. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 36:538–550
Tang SQ, Jiang QY, Zhang YL et al (2008) Obestatin: its physicochemical characteristics and physiological functions. Peptides 29:639–645
Tang-Christensen M, Larsen PJ, Thulesen J et al (2000) The proglucagon-derived peptide, glucagon-like peptide-2, is a neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of food intake. Nat Med 6:802–807
Teitelbaum DH, Han-Markey T, Drongowski RA et al (1997) Use of cholecystokinin to prevent the development of parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 21:100–103
Thompson NM, Gill DA, Davies R et al (2004) Ghrelin and des-octanoyl ghrelin promote adipogenesis directly in vivo by a mechanism independent of the type 1a growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Endocrinology 145:234–242
Tomasetto C, Karam SM, Ribieras S et al (2000) Identification and characterization of a novel gastric peptide hormone: the motilin-related peptide. Gastroenterology 119:395–405
Tornhage CJ, Serenius F, Uvnas-Moberg K, Lindberg T (1995) Plasma somatostatin and cholecystokinin levels in preterm infants and their mothers at birth. Pediatr Res 37:771–776
Tornhage CJ, Serenius F, Uvnas-Moberg K, Lindberg T (1996) Plasma somatostatin and cholecystokinin levels in preterm infants during the first day of life. Biol Neonate 70:311–321
Tornhage CJ, Serenius F, Uvnas-Moberg K, Lindberg T (1998) Plasma somatostatin and cholecystokinin levels in preterm infants during kangaroo care with and without nasogastric tube-feeding. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 11:645–651
Uvnas-Moberg K, Marchini G, Winberg J (1993) Plasma cholecystokinin concentrations after breast feeding in healthy 4 day old infants. Arch Dis Child 68:46–48
Valderas JP, Padilla O, Solari S et al (2014) Feeding and bone turnover in gastric bypass. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99:491–497
Valsamakis G, Papatheodorou DC, Naouma A et al (2014) Neonatal birthwaist is positively predicted by second trimester maternal active ghrelin, a pro-appetite hormone, and negatively associated with third trimester maternal leptin, a pro-satiety hormone. Early Hum Dev 90:487–492
Van den Hoek AM, Heijboer AC, Corssmit EP et al (2004) PYY3-36 reinforces insulin action on glucose disposal in mice fed a high-fat diet. Diabetes 53:1949–1952
Verdich C, Flint A, Gutzwiller JP et al (2001) A meta-analysis of the effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide on ad libitum energy intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4382–4389
Vilsboll T, Krarup T, Sonne J et al (2003) Incretin secretion in relation to meal size and body weight in healthy subjects and people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2706–2713
Wagner CL (2002) Amniotic fluid and human milk: a continuum of effect? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 34:513–514
Warchoł M, Krauss H, Wojciechowska M et al (2014) The role of ghrelin, leptin and insulin in foetal development. Ann Agri Env Med 21(2):349–352
West DB, Greenwood MR, Marshall KA, Woods SC (1987) Lithium chloride, cholecystokinin and meal patterns: evidence that cholecystokinin suppresses meal size in rats without causing malaise. Appetite 8:221–227
Whatmore AJ, Hall CM, Jones J et al (2003) Ghrelin concentrations in healthy children and adolescents. Clin Endocrinol 59:649–654
Wiedmer P, Nogueiras R, Broglio F et al (2007) Ghrelin, obesity and diabetes. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 3:705–712
Wierup N, Bjorkqvist M, Westrom B et al (2007) Ghrelin and motilin are cosecreted from a prominent endocrine cell population in the small intestine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:3573–3581
Wojcicki JM (2012) Peptide YY in children: a review. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 25(3–4):227–232
Woods SC (2004) Gastrointestinal satiety signals I. An overview of gastrointestinal signals that influence food intake. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 286:G7–13
Wortley KE, Anderson KD, Garcia K et al (2004) Genetic deletion of ghrelin does not decrease food intake but influences metabolic fuel preference. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:8227–8232
Wortley KE, del Rincon JP, Murray JD et al (2005) Absence of ghrelin protects against early-onset obesity. J Clin Invest 115:3573–3578
Wynne K, Park AJ, Small CJ et al (2006) Oxyntomodulin increases energy expenditure in addition to decreasing energy intake in overweight and obese humans: a randomised controlled trial. Int J Obes(Lond) 30:1729–1736
Xiao Q, Boushey RP, Drucker DJ, Brubaker PL (1999) Secretion of the intestinotropic hormone glucagon-like peptide 2 is differentially regulated by nutrients in humans. Gastroenterology 117:99–105
Xiao C, Dash S, Morgantini C et al (2015) Gut peptides are novel regulators of intestinal lipoprotein secretion: experimental and pharmacological manipulation of lipoprotein metabolism. Diabetes 64:2310–2318
Yang J, Brown MS, Liang G et al (2008) Identification of the acyltransferase that octanoylates ghrelin, an appetite-stimulating peptide hormone. Cell 132:387–396
Yokota I, Kitamura S, Hosoda H et al (2005) Concentration of the n-octanoylated active form of ghrelin in foetal and neonatal circulation. Endocr J 52:271–276
Yoshikawa H, Miyata I, Eto Y (2006) Serum glucagon-like peptide-2 levels in neonates: comparison between extremely low-birthweight infants and normal-term infants. Pediatr Int 48:464–469
Zhang W, Zhao L, Lin TR et al (2004) Inhibition of adipogenesis by ghrelin. Mol Biol Cell 15:2484–2491
Zhang JV, Ren PG, Avsian-Kretchmer O et al (2005) Obestatin, a peptide encoded by the ghrelin gene, opposes ghrelin’s effects on food intake. Science 310:996–999
Zhang S, Zhai G, Zhang J et al (2014) Ghrelin and obestatin plasma levels and ghrelin/obestatin prepropeptide gene polymorphisms in small for gestational age infants. J Int Med Res 42(6):1232–1242
Zou CC, Liang L, Wang CL, Fu JF, Zhao ZY (2009) The change in ghrelin and obestatin levels in obese children after weight reduction. Acta Paediatr 98:159–165
Zwirska-Korczala K, Adamczyk-Sowa M, Sowa P et al (2007) Role of leptin, ghrelin, angiotensin II and orexins in 3 T3 L1 preadipocyte cells proliferation and oxidative metabolism. J Physiol Pharmacol 58(Suppl 1):53–64
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Prodam, F. et al. (2016). Hormones and Gastrointestinal Function of Newborns. In: Buonocore, G., Bracci, R., Weindling, M. (eds) Neonatology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18159-2_184-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18159-2_184-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-18159-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-18159-2
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine