Keywords

1 Introduction

The aspects of durability and sustainable product design are more and more often the main topic of discussion in the field of design. The World Commission on Environment and Development defines sustainable development as development that meets the present needs for the development of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development covers social, environmental and economic aspects and therefore accompanies the entire product life cycle. In practice, sustainable design is the process of creating a product that allows you to generate profits for the enterprise. In addition, it must use as little energy as possible, and therefore the minimum amount of raw material, which is associated with a smaller amount of generated waste, which can potentially have a negative impact on the environment.

The concept of eco-innovation is associated with any form of innovation, both technical and non-technical. Its purpose is primarily to create new opportunities for companies and bring benefits to the environment by preventing or limiting the negative impacts of enterprises on the ecosystem. Eco-innovation is closely related to the methods of using natural resources and their production and consumption. Eco-innovations make it possible to minimize the flow of materials and energy going beyond the enterprise as a result of changes in production methods and materials used, which gives companies the opportunity to gain a competitive advantage on the market.

The subject of ecodesign has been widely used in economic practice relatively recently. Currently, enterprises consider it necessary to monitor the environmental impact of their products or services. Ecodesign can be used for existing products, services or processes, but it is also used for new products.

All kinds of provided services or manufactured products, to some extent, affect the ecosystem. The scale of this impact depends on several variables, such as: the means used to manufacture the product, the materials used, or the product life time. Currently, the product is required to minimize its impact on the environment throughout its life cycle, with the greatest attention being paid to the phases with the greatest negative impact on the ecosystem. In addition to environmental aspects, important are also those related to the reduction of costs for each stage of the life cycle, which allows a given company to improve the issue of competitiveness on the market. There are several methods that allow a product to be assessed in terms of its environmental impact. The best known method is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). It is believed that this method, due to its complexity, is one of the most accurate and objective in terms of environmental assessment. It was developed and popularized at the beginning of the nineties of the twentieth century. It increasingly influences the ecological assessment of services, technologies or products. It is supported by various laws and procedures included in the ISO 1404x series.

2 Product Life Cycle

The product life cycle (PLC) should be understood as the period of time from the creation of the idea of a certain product, then the development of its concept, and then design, execution, distribution, sale, operation and final scrapping [1]. The concept of the product life cycle is determined by the following principles [1]:

  • products have a limited life span.

  • the sale of a product consists of several stages. Each of them generates challenges and problems for the manufacturer.

  • depending on the stage of the product life cycle, profits increase or decrease.

  • products require the application of human resources strategies and various financial, marketing, production and purchasing activities at every stage of their life cycle.

With the development of tools for design, manufacturing and computer aided engineering (CAD/CAM/CAE), a new era of introducing the product to the market has begun. After the introduction of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) in the early 1980s, the commonly used method of proceeding was the cooperation of design and manufacturing processes. As a result, terms such as design for production or designed for production were created [2]. However, the stages of use of the product and its disposal were still not addressed.

In the mid-1980s, there was a breakthrough in terms of designing the product life cycle with regard to environmental protection. Many European countries have introduced regulations relating to packaging and packaging waste management. Directive 85/339/EEC was introduced, which made the LCC and LCA subject to tests in order to modernize the methods of environmental assessment of the life cycle of the product, so that they meet the latest requirements and conditions of competitiveness, and at the same time could meet the growing trend of environmental protection [3].

The E-PLC concept focuses on the whole product life cycle “from cradle to grave”, i.e. product conception, design, production, sale, use and end-of-life. Due to the fact that there is currently no specific E-PLC model imposed by standards, scientists continue to study individual PLC components independently of one another. The result of these activities has been the emergence of many new perspectives for E-PLC over the last twenty years. The common element of individual studies was relying on the same scientific publications. Analyzing the product in terms of design, Alting proposes a six-phase life cycle: market needs research, product concept development, production, distribution, use and disposal or recycling [2]. In addition, he believed that each of the phases should be taken into account and thoroughly analyzed at the stage of creating the product concept. Based on the work of Alting, the concept of the material life cycle was introduced, which is an extension of the product life cycle. The sample material analysis of a product was based on the residual amount of material that was recycled at the end of its life cycle.

Fig. 1.
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Closed loop of the engineering product life cycle [4].

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Currently, the product life cycle model uses the flow of both information and materials. It is divided into three phases. The first phase of the cycle, called BOL (Beginning of life) consists of the stages of product design and production. Then the product life cycle goes to the second phase, in which the customer purchases the finished product. In this part of the cycle, called the Middle of Life (MOL) phase, the item is used and possibly repaired. This phase is characterized by the separation of the flow of information and materials, as well as the return of data to BOL. The final phase is related to the end of life of the product that is subject to the recycling process. Product decommissioning is defined as the end of life (EOL). In this phase, the flow of information and materials is finally separated. Materials and components are passed back to BOL and MOL, and all information related to the product and its design to BOL. This form of the product life cycle model enables the free flow of data between BOL, MOL and EOL. The closed loop enables designers to constantly improve the product at every stage of its life. This type of concept is currently the most advanced known model of the engineering product life cycle [4]. The diagram of the engineering life of the product is shown in Fig. 1.

3 Environmental Assessment of the Product Life Cycle

Among the many available tools and methods for environmental management, the Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) deserves special attention. It is a product analysis method that covers the environmental aspects and potential environmental impacts throughout the product life cycle (“cradle to grave”), starting from the raw material extraction stage, then through production, operation and decommissioning of the product. It has been used since the end of the nineties of the twentieth century. Since then, it has been constantly popularized and developed, which means that it plays an increasingly important role in the ecological evaluation of products, services and technologies. Additionally, the method was supported by specific procedures described in ISO 14040 [5] and ISO 14044 [6]. Due to the wide scope of application, LCA is considered to be one of the most accurate and objective methods used for environmental assessment. In waste management systems or in the assessment of production technology, the use of the LCA method is necessary to determine the real impact of various types of solutions on the environment, which is also associated with the selection of the least burdensome solution for the environment [7].

LCA is one of the available methods used for environmental management, the application of which includes the study of all aspects related to the environment as well as the estimation of potential impacts that may occur during the entire life cycle of the product. Thanks to the LCA method, it is possible to assess the environmental impacts and aspects that are associated with each stage of the product life cycle. It includes stages such as: extraction and processing of mineral resources, production, distribution, transport, use, reuse of the product, recycling and final disposal of waste.

According to the International Organization for Standardization ISO, LCA is defined as a method for assessing potential impacts and environmental aspects related to a product [8]. It includes four phases: defining the purpose and scope of research, reviewing the product system in terms of a set of key inputs and outputs, evaluation of possible environmental impacts related to the system inputs and outputs, analysis of the obtained results of the set assessment and impact assessment phases related to research objectives [5, 6].

LCA is currently treated as a tool supporting decision-making related to the selection of the most convenient way to design a new product or technology. It can also greatly contribute to their development. The environmental assessment of the product life cycle is related to the model system, which consists of unit processes that fulfill one or more specific functions. These processes are a resource used for material and energy flows between processes. Due to this fact, it is necessary to collect data related to energy consumption or raw materials in each phase of the life cycle of a given product [9].

The basic tasks assigned to the LCA method are [9]:

  • reporting of possible environmental impacts of the product in each phase of its life,

  • review of the available opportunities for the emergence of related environmental impacts, so that the implemented remedial measures do not cause the creation of further environmental problems,

  • outlining priorities in improving the production of products,

  • a compilation of the different ways in which a given process can be performed or a comparison of all available solutions to a given problem.

Based on the results obtained as a result of LCA analyzes, the product production system with the most favorable impact on the ecosystem is selected. The analysis of a product’s environmental impact starts at the design stage, which ensures that any possible impacts on the product are anticipated at each stage of its life cycle. This is the stage with the highest risk for the product or any project, because at this point you need to define such aspects as: raw materials, base materials, product production process, transport or disposal. In addition, a preliminary estimate of the life of the product and the possibility of its repair should be made.

The LCA method additionally determines the so-called the transfer of the environmental impact of pollutants transferred from one phase of the cycle to another, or one environmental component to another. An example of such a transfer may be, for example, processing and re-use of a product instead of obtaining a raw material for the production of a new product [7].

The structure of the LCA consists of several important steps in the assessment. Figure 2 shows the phases of the life cycle assessment.

Fig. 2.
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Life cycle assessment (LCA) phases and application areas [5].

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The first stage of the LCA analysis is to define the purpose and scope, which is the key level of the analysis, as it both determines the choice of the technique used and determines its detail. The selection of appropriate quantitative and qualitative parameters and the determination of the limits of a given model depend on the adopted goal and the anticipated manner of using the obtained results. A very important element of each study using the LCA method is to set the goal and target group of the study for which the results will be presented. The key in this case is the fact that LCA is only a decision support tool, and the so-called interested parties. According to the ISO 14040 standard, they are defined as “units or groups associated with or affected by the environmental performance of the product system or the results of the life cycle assessment” [5]. The comment to the standard explains that “the purpose should clearly define the intended use, the reasons for conducting the research and the intended recipient, ie to whom the test results are to be communicated” [10].

In the first step of the LCA life cycle assessment, the purpose, the envisaged use of the study results and the description of the principal, the person carrying out the research and the target audience should be established and adequately justified. Additionally, the type of analysis used should also be declared, as two types of analysis can be performed: non-comparative and comparative.

The scope of research should be understood as a specific type of collected data and their characterized scope, as well as system boundaries. In particular, the level of sophistication of the system and the exact stages of the product life cycle to be tested should be determined. Within the examined stage, the time, geographic and technological scope of the LCA study to be conducted should be specified. In addition, it is required to indicate the type of environmental impacts and the methodology used to estimate them, which is the basis for the correct characterization and classification [9].

Defining the scope of the LCA test involves the characterization of three important, closely related issues: product system, product system boundary, and functional unit.

A product system should be understood as a set of “materially and energetically connected unit processes that fulfill one or more specific functions” [5, 6, 9]. It is possible to link unit processes when using a product stream. An exemplary description of a unit process should include:

  • elementary input streams (e.g. crude oil, natural gas, water) and output streams (e.g. water eutrophication, emissions to air), product streams (e.g. electricity) and intermediate product streams (raw materials),

  • type of changes and operations taking place within a given unit process,

  • the place where the unit process begins.

The product system boundary is described as “the interface between the product system and the environment or other product systems” [9]. The main functions of this stage of the LCA study are the determination of the time period and the definition of the technological and geographical area. In addition, the accuracy of the entered data and their completeness are introduced for each phase of the unit process. Defining the area of ​​the system and its boundaries is crucial as the purpose of this stage is to determine the energy used in each phase of the process and the necessary sources of raw materials. When determining the boundaries of a unit process, it is necessary to define unit processes. Additionally, unit stages of the product life cycle should be considered, such as [9]:

  • input and output streams in the product production process,

  • transport and distribution,

  • production and consumption of raw materials and energy,

  • exploitation of products,

  • consumption of secondary raw materials,

  • aspects related to the installation of the product or its additional components.

By the term functional unit it is meant “the quantitative effect of the product system used as a reference unit in LCA studies”. A functional unit is associated with the entire product system and is considered in terms of functional properties or functions of the product. When analyzing a given product in relation to this unit (as a parameter), one should refer to it quantitatively, ie 1 MW of consumed or received energy, 1 kg of CO2 emissions, etc. [7].

The report prepared by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prepared a list of LCA metrics and their characteristics. It complements the general methodology of the product life cycle, consisting of the three pillars of sustainable development: environmental, social and economic. These metrics include [11, 12]:

  • Cumulative Energy Demand - is the total amount of energy that is consumed during the entire life cycle of the product.

  • Cumulative Fossil Energy Demand - a CED subcategory that describes the amount of energy over the entire life cycle of a product. This energy comes from the combustion of raw materials such as oil, natural gas and coal.

  • Cumulative Renewable Energy Demand - is a subset of CED, which characterizes the amount of renewable energy in the entire life cycle of the product. Renewable energy consists of such energy sources as: hydro, solar, geothermal and wind energy.

  • Global Warming Potential - often also referred to as the carbon footprint. It shows the impact on climate change over time. It is usually presented for the next 100 years. It shows the emissions of all greenhouse gases into the air. Examples of this type of gas are: methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) or nitrous oxide (N2O)

  • Ozone Depletion Potential - describes the total impact of emissions of all gases that negatively affect ozone in the stratospheric ozone layer. The analysis of this metric is applied throughout the product life cycle and is determined based on the functional unit delivered to the customer (including product end-of-life management). Stratospheric ozone occurs as a layer of natural gas to protect living cells, against excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Overexposure to radiation can cause, inter alia, cancer or has a negative effect on agriculture, which results, among others, in lower yields.

  • Acidificaton Potential - shows the total impact of all acid gas emissions, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF), sulfur oxides (SOx) or ammonia (NH4). Excessive emission of these substances causes acidification of soil and water reservoirs and accelerates the corrosion of building structures.

  • Eutrophication Potential - This is a category that illustrates algae overgrowth as a result of the excessive emission of limiting nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Emissions can occur directly or indirectly and target water bodies.

  • Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential - Shows the relative total impact of nitrogen oxides and VOC emissions to the atmosphere over the entire life cycle of a product. In the presence of nitrogen oxides and sunlight, when volatile organic compounds are emitted, for example non-metallic hydrocarbons, chemical reactions take place, the product of which is ozone (O3). It is produced at ground level, which causes the phenomenon of the so-called photochemical smog.

  • Waste water footprint and water emission - a category that describes the total water demand at each stage of the product life cycle necessary to provide the customer with a functional unit. Most often, the category is divided into fresh and salt water.

  • Environmental and human toxicity assessment - quantifies the ecosystem fate of emissions of all kinds of chemicals and their impact on human health and the environment on the basis of possible effects.

  • Direct Land UseChange - an indicator relating to the conversion of natural land, such as forests, pastures or farmland, to a changed state. The aim of this type of activity is the possibility of producing forest and agricultural products, e.g. raw materials for the production of biofuels. By-products that arise as a result of this are, inter alia, greenhouse gases.

  • Indirect Land Use Change - an indicator describing the phenomenon of land use change in the event of a change in the location of the crop and its relocation to another location, which is associated with a change in the condition of the land. The effect of this phenomenon is, inter alia, a change in the carbon stock in a given area or an increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

Examples of environmental analysis can be found in the literature. The paper [13] presents a comparative environmental analysis of acoustic barriers made of five types of materials using the LCA method. In the article [14] two approaches to concrete structures service life modeling in LCA were tested. LCA was performed for 94 CC and HVFAC mix designs. A number of publications are also devoted to the environmental analysis of packaging. In the report [15], the environmental analysis of plastic and paper straws for portion-sized carton packages was presented using the LCA method. Another report [16] presents a comparative LCA analysis of carton packages and alternative packaging systems for liquid food on the Nordic market. The subject of research is also the packaging recycling system. In [17], two scenarios were compared using the LCA method: no packaging recycling system and was compared with two hypothetical scenarios where all the packaging waste that was selectively collected. The researchers are also interested in the differences in the results of the analysis performed with the use of different software. The article [18] presents a comparative analysis of the processes of exploration and production of oil and gas performed in the SimaPro and OpenLCA programs.

4 Environmental Product Assessment in Selected Tools

4.1 Research Methodology

The purpose of this study is to conduct an environmental analysis of the same product in specialized modules of two popular 3D CAD systems. The research methodology consists in modeling a real product, conducting an analysis in two 3D CAD systems and then comparing the results. The choice of the product was dictated by two reasons: the possibility of performing the analysis in the evaluation versions of both systems and the material homogeneity of the product.

4.2 Product Being Analyzed

The subject of the analysis will be a 1.5 L storage box (Fig. 3a). It is a product consisting of four parts, all of them are made of polypropylene (PP). For the purposes of the environmental analysis, the product was modeled in the 3D CAD environment (Fig. 3b). The analyzes were carried out in the following tools: Eco Materials Adviser [19] and SolidWorks Sustainability [20], both in evaluation versions.

Fig. 3.
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Analyzed product: a) real product, b) 3D CAD model.

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4.3 Analysis in Eco Materials Adviser

Using the Eco Materials Adviser tool, operating in the CAD 3D Autodesk Inventor 2020 environment, the LCA analysis of the product was carried out using the CML method. As part of the analysis, the product manufacturing process was defined as injection molding. Data on the distribution and installation of the product were not included in the analysis.

The product was analyzed in terms of energy consumption throughout its life cycle. Particularly important in this case is the part called Pudelko_1: 1, which according to the program exceeds the acceptable standard at every stage of the life cycle. Parts such as the handles of the container exceed the permissible value of energy consumption at the end of life stage of the product. The remaining analyzes are shown in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

Fig. 4.
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Product analysis using the eco materials adviser - values of energy consumption.

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Fig. 5.
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Product analysis using the eco materials adviser - values of carbon footprint.

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Fig. 6.
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Product analysis using the eco materials adviser - values of variants in terms of water consumption.

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Fig. 7.
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Product analysis using the eco materials adviser - values of variants in terms of production cost.

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Fig. 8.
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Product analysis using the eco materials adviser - values of product compliance with the EU RoHS directive and compatibility in use in contact with food.

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Fig. 9.
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Product analysis using the eco materials adviser - values of the end of the product life cycle.

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4.4 Analysis in SolidWorks Sustainability

Using the SolidWorks Sustainability tool, operating in the SolidWorks 3D CAD system environment, the LCA analysis of the product was carried out using the CML method (Fig. 10). The following assumptions were made as part of the analysis: product life cycle length 5 years, end of the product life cycle - landfilling, place of production of the product - Poland, place of use of the product - Poland also. Data on the distribution and installation of the product were not included in the analysis.

Fig. 10.
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Product analysis in SolidWorks Sustainability.

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The obtained results were obtained in the form of the product environmental impact window. The analysis broken down into four main environmental categories: carbon footprint, energy consumption, air acidification and water eutrophication. The obtained results show that the stages of product production and transport have the greatest impact on the ecosystem (Fig. 11). The remaining analyzes are presented in Figs. 12–13. The main indicators are compared in Table 1.

Fig. 11.
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Product environmental impact in the SolidWorks sustainability program.

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Fig. 12.
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List of environmental indicators in terms of the negative impact of the product on the environment with a breakdown into individual stages of its life cycle in SolidWorks sustainability.

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Fig. 13.
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Summary of the parts of the tested product in terms of negative environmental impact in SolidWorks sustainability.

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Table 1. Comparison of indicators from eco materials adviser and SolidWorks sustainability.
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5 Conclusions

Despite the use of the same method of calculating environmental indicators, the values obtained from both tools differ from each other. It is therefore advisable to calculate environmental indicators with the use of several tools and then aggregate the results, e.g. in the form of calculation of average values.

The use of environmental analysis in the evaluation of production processes and resulting products is becoming more and more significant. The range of information processed by it is constantly expanding, which means that the assessment of the product life cycle is extended over time to new application areas. It is anticipated that in the near future the environmental assessment tools will be integrated with other tools to support decisions in situations where environmental aspects will be an important factor. It seems, however, to mention that in very few cases environmental analysis can be used as the main factor supporting decision-making.