Keywords

1 Introduction

A growing number of scientists feel that environmental issues result from shifting human attitudes and the widespread practice of consumerism. On the other hand, others believe that it is the result of natural climate change that is unavoidable. Climate change has a variety of causes, both natural and artificial; while natural causes include factors such as earth rotation, continent movement, volcanic eruptions, and ocean water currents, man-made causes include factors such as population growth, urban development, industrial growth, deforestation, and increasing carbon footprints. In addition to the natural ecosystems, climate change has had an impact on human ecosystems. The magnitude of these consequences has been so tremendous that geoscientists have hypothesised a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene (a period that marked the beginning of the significant effects of human activities on the ecosystems and geological structure of the planet) has begun. A few examples of evidence from this current geological period are the loss of the ozone layer, the devastation of marine reefs, species extinction, climate change, and global warming, among other things. The global climate change landscape has become so important that in addition to the world's scientific centres, the United Nations has established a particular working group called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to monitor and evaluate it. When it comes to climate change and its consequences throughout the world, it is critical to perform climate change research that will help us be better equipped to adapt to climate change and decrease its potential damage. The importance of climate change has grown in recent years due to the economic, social, and financial ramifications that it entails. The adverse effects of climate change can be so severe to human beings that it is regarded as one of the top ten most severe risks to human existence in the twenty-first century by the United Nations. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate change and its consequences will continue until the end of the twenty-first century unless all greenhouse gases are eliminated now (IPCC 2007).

2 Global Climate Change as a Global Concern

The global climate is changing as a result of rising amounts of greenhouse gases in the environment. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, global temperatures have risen by around 0.3–0.6 °C, with the same forecast to climb to 3.5 °C by 2100. (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

The trend of global temperature increase in different periods (IPCC 2013)

Full size image

According to the IPCC (2013) studies on the impact of climate change on different continents in the next decades, the following are the findings:

  • Severe drought will affect parts of Africa, with severe effects on household livelihoods and food security on a regional and national scale. Other portions of Africa will be devastated by destructive floods and water-borne illnesses, such as malaria and other infectious diseases, which will raise the death rate in those areas.

  • Droughts, food and water shortages, and other natural disasters will become increasingly common throughout Asia. Flooding will occur in coastal regions due to increasing sea levels in some locations, resulting in damage to infrastructure and lives. It is a significant threat to the hundreds of millions of people who live along the Indian and Pacific Oceans coasts.

  • Europe will be hit by disastrous floods, increasing sea levels, coastline erosion, and restricted availability of potable water, particularly in the southern hemisphere. Extreme heat will also hurt human health, grain production efficiency, and the quality of the air.

  • Flooding, coral bleaching, and changes in the composition of coral reefs in the oceans are just a few of the effects of climate change that will significantly influence Australia's numerous industries and sectors. As sea levels rise in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, certain islands will perish, and others may become uninhabitable due to rising sea levels.

  • In the semi-arid parts of Central America, there will be a reduction in the availability of potable water. In addition, floods and landslides will affect urban and rural regions at low elevations, reducing the amount and quality of food available.

  • Increased storms, tornadoes, and floods (particularly in the river and coastal areas) are among the climate change consequences in North America that will risk public health and cause social systems to be disrupted. Drought conditions in the western United States are becoming increasingly severe, resulting in more frequent fires, deterioration of ecological integrity, and increased human mortality (IPCC 2013).

  • There will be a reduction in marine biodiversity in the following years, and ocean acidification will accelerate this trend. Therefore, the ecological reversibility of coastal habitats will be diminished. The livelihoods of fishing-dependent communities would be severely harmed as a result of this. Table 1 summarised the future concerns about climate change concerning the different temperature values (Stern 2007).

    Table 1 Concerns about climate change concerning the different temperature values
    Full size table

Significant increase in the temperature and uneven distribution of precipitation are the most important features of global climate change that are limiting factors for sustainable development (Wang et al. 2015). The Earth’s atmosphere is one of the shared global resources that individuals and businesses are responsible for protecting. Environmental laws in many nations do not place restrictions on the discharge of local and regional pollutants. Of course, it should not be forgotten that the recurring and negative repercussions of local and regional pollutants have been decreased to some extent due to the adoption and execution of mitigation initiatives. Until recently, however, there were few regulatory measures to reduce carbon dioxide emissions (as the main greenhouse gas). This pollutant has no immediate negative influence on the environment; but the buildup of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will have a considerable impact on world temperatures and climates, but the magnitude and timing of these effects are still up in the air.

Given that carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are continually accumulating on the Earth's surface, merely stabilising the release of these gases will not fix the problem immediately. For decades or even centuries, greenhouse gases persist in the Earth's atmosphere and continue to impact the temperature of the entire planet long after they are released into the sky. The only way to prevent greenhouse gases from continuing to accumulate in the Earth's atmosphere is to cut their emissions drastically. As a result, the amount of these released gases must be consistent with the Earth's absorption capacity. According to current estimates, human activity is responsible for somewhere between 20 and 50% of carbon dioxide emissions worldwide. It indicates that emissions from human activities must be decreased by at least 50% to 80% to keep up with the Earth’s absorption capacity. To address global climate change, national and international policies must be developed that consider a wide variety of scientific, economic, and social challenges (Word Bank 2010). In light of the severity of climate change's consequences, it is in everyone's best interests to cut greenhouse gas emissions. It will not be enough for firms, communities, and nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions if there is no consensus or law on the subject. As a result, climate change may be regarded as a global concern from the perspective of the common good, which necessitates collective action. Because this is a worldwide problem, only a strong international agreement that obligates governments to act on public goods can prevent significant environmental effects from occurring (Karimi et al. 2021).

3 Options and Opportunities for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in the Agriculture Sector

Climate change has had several negative consequences for several productive sectors, including agriculture; but, if the available possibilities and mitigation strategies are appropriately utilised, the resulting harm will be very little. Several mitigation measures are available for the agricultural sector, including farm management, animal management, natural resource management (soil and water), land-use modification, the use of renewable energy, and the most efficient use of energy resources in agricultural activities. According to Frelih-Larsen et al. (2014) and Underwood et al. (2013), the following are the broad mitigation approaches for lowering emissions in the international agriculture sector:

  • N2O emissions from agricultural soils and drainage should be prevented or reduced;

  • Storage, processing, and use of chemical fertilisers should be reduced;

  • Livestock sector is one of the primary producers of greenhouse gases such as CH4 in the world, so proper livestock management practices should be followed to reduce their emission.

  • Proper land and soil management to reduce CO2 emissions.

  • The machines which consume higher fossil fuels and increase CO2 emissions should be appropriately optimised.

  • The process of fertiliser production should be rationalised with environmental agriculture.

It should also be mentioned that there is no one-size-fits-all option for reducing emissions. However, a mix of these mitigation options can be employed in different sectors contributing to the gas emission.

As previously stated, the earth's climate became out of balance over the twentieth century, increasing global temperature (Dracup and Vicuma 2005). Droughts, floods, , heatwaves, and global warming are just a few of the consequences of climate change that have put the world in a state of emergency. Various places of the world experience different changes in temperature and precipitation, which do not always follow the same pattern (Clark et al. 2000). Climate fluctuation has had a significant impact on people's lives in the past. On the other hand, humans have contributed to climate change in the modern era through their actions. It has emerged as one of humanity's most pressing problems in the twenty-first century, as well as a possible threat to both natural and man-made surroundings (Jones 1998). The worldwide average temperature has grown by around 0.74 °C in the last 100 years, a significant rise. The winter's low temperature has increased at a greater rate than the maximum temperature of the summer (IPCC 2013). Evidence suggests that human activities have a greater impact on precipitation changes than rising temperatures (Liu et al. 2019). Precipitation has increased at higher latitudes and decreased at lower latitudes in general, while precipitation variability has risen practically everywhere (Asseng et al. 2015) and is increasing globally.

The IPCC report anticipates and warns of an increase in climatic and meteorological phenomena, such as droughts, floods, cyclones, and heatwaves, which can have serious consequences for natural ecosystems and human systems throughout the world (Tambo 2016). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected that climate change through 2040 (Feng and Fu 2013) will have a considerable influence on climate change resulting from rising greenhouse gas emissions and increasing industrial activity. Every year, around 40,000 million tonnes of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere due to industrial and agricultural processes. If the current trend continues, it is estimated that by 2040, this quantity would increase to 60,000 million tonnes. High greenhouse gas concentrations and rising global temperatures are expected as a result of this development. Furthermore, it is predicted that the Earth's temperature would climb by 3.5 °C by 2100 (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Global surface temperature relative 1880–2020

Full size image

From 1950 to 1970, the temperature decreased, and from 1970 until now, it has experienced an increasing trend. On average, global temperature has risen by one degree since 1950, which is more pronounced in European countries, especially southern Europe and the Mediterranean countries such as Italy, Spain, Greece, and southern France (Mohaqeq Damad 2000). Based on these climate model simulations, the average rainfall in the whole planet is expected to change significantly concerning space and time. The simulations also show that the number of storms and heavy rains will increase. Another consequence of rising global temperatures is the thawing of polar ice caps. This process will cause water levels to rise to 15 m in some areas such as the Atlantic Ocean, especially off the coast of Europe (Iran Meteorological Organization 2017). In addition to submerging ports and destroying naval facilities, this advance of ocean water will cause saline water to flow into coastal rivers and even disrupt these countries' drinking water supply system. It is also argued that most of the world's freshwater wetlands may turn into saline wetlands. Such a change could severely affect the earth's natural environment. Another model states that the increase in billions of cubic metres of cold water caused by melting ice and floating pieces of polar ice will cause the earth's temperature to drop dramatically in a short period. Another pessimistic model predicts rising ocean water and floating chunks of polar ice, increasing pressure on ocean floor fissures. These events will move continental plates, create earthquakes, and lead to the infiltration of molten material into the ocean floor. The outcome of all these events will be the “instability of the earth”, and under such circumstances, human life will be in grave danger. These changes will profoundly affect freshwater resources, coastal areas, biodiversity, forests and pastures, and even agricultural production (Yazdi 2018).

4 Climate Change Impacts

The importance of climate change has grown in recent years as a result of the economic, social, and financial ramifications that it entails. The negative consequences of this phenomenon on human beings are so terrible that it has risen to the top of the list of the ten most dangerous human variables (which also include poverty, nuclear weapons, food shortages, and other issues) in the twenty-first century. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate change will continue by the end of the twenty-first century due to the 150-year persistence of carbon in the atmosphere. So the most important goal for the scientific community dealing with this phenomenon is to examine the implications of climate change on many elements of human existence and to develop comparable strategies for coping with these bad repercussions in the future (IPCC 2007). The major impacts of climate change are as follows.

4.1 Increasing Sea Level

Rising sea level is one of the most critical impacts of climate change, which occurs through increasing temperatures and melting glaciers and Earth's icy surfaces. Rising sea levels, even mild ones, lead to coastal erosion, submergence of the lands, increasing land and sea storms, salinisation of freshwater, and disappearance of coral reefs and sandy beaches. Therefore, it can pose a new threat to human life, species survival, agricultural land, facilities, and infrastructure (transport system, roads, piping systems, factories, buildings, and airports) (Pellinga and Uittob 2001). Coastal floods, coastlines' erosion, freshwater resources pollution, wetlands' flooding, and rising salinity of deltas are some of the actual issues that occur even with low sea level rises (Akhavan-Kazemi et al. 2019; Atalay 2014; Sweet et al. 2014).

4.2 Increasing Air Temperature

Investigations reveal that climate change has been the focus of various researchers over the past few decades, and many theories have been put forward about their origins, factors, trends, predictions, and impacts. Global warming due to human-induced activities is one of the leading environmental issues that has grabbed most scientific and political circles around the world in the last decade. Although industrialisation has brought progress, prosperity, comfort, and convenience to human beings, it has not achieved a global environment's glorious achievement. In other words, industrialisation has become a significant factor in destroying and disrupting the Earth. One of the influential factors in climate change is the increase in greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) due to human activities after countries' industrialisation (Jones and Warner 2016; Midgley et al. 2003; Park et al. 2017). According to IPCC, most global warming from the mid-twentieth century has been rooted in human-made greenhouse gases. Global warming could lead to the melting of glaciers and icy surfaces in the North and South Poles. Forecasts suggest that by 2030, all Arctic glaciers and by 2100, all mountains and Antarctic ice sheets will melt (Serreze et al. 2007). This will increase the air temperature as much as possible.

4.3 Development of Droughts and Food Insecurity

Drought is a decrease in rainfall compared to its long-term average. It causes an imbalance in water and water shortages, plant destruction, reduced water flow intensity, and surface water depth. This happens when the surface evaporation and water evaporation from plants are higher than usual within a certain period. Drought is the most severe problem for agriculture worldwide, and to combat this phenomenon, fertilising the clouds is a valuable but short-term method. In recent decades, drought has been more frequent among the natural disasters that have affected human life. Climate change will have adverse impacts on food resources and products that will lead to a sudden and sharp rise in prices of basic products and will substantially lead to political and economic turmoils (Hanjra 2010). Thus, climate change and its impacts on human food security have become an important issue (Fanta 2003).

Further, local households may face more restrictions on access to food. In other words, poor and vulnerable people, especially in developing countries, will suffer more from food insecurity than other groups (Devereux and Maxwell 2001). Climate change and its rebound impact on food security are already increasingly exacerbating in parts of the world. For instance, Africa and South Asia are known as the most vulnerable areas in terms of food security—a phenomenon defined as the physical and economic access of all individuals to nutritious and adequate food at any time and place; so that they can satisfy their nutritional needs to continue living a healthy and active life (FAO 2008). Climate change models show that the temperature and rainfall of all regions will be disrupted in the future, and as a result, agricultural production and food security will get affected. Also, the supply of meat and livestock products will be affected. Studies show that the agricultural productivity index will decline from 0.21 to 0.09 shortly (Liliana 2005). Global food reports (WFP 2016) show that agricultural productivity is slower than global population growth. Reports of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO 2011) show that the climate might affect the production and pattern of foods. Climatic events such as drought can endanger the livelihoods of rural areas, as rural areas in Asia are suffering from poverty (Skoufias et al. 2011). Combining these events ultimately leads to natural and human challenges, growing tensions, and exacerbating migration (Laczko and Aghazaman 2009).

4.4 Precipitation Changes

Climate change can disrupt rainfall patterns, and the frequently heavy rainfalls in the Northern Hemisphere (including North America, Northern Europe, and North and Central Asia) prove this claim. Rainfall is declining in most tropical, arid, and semi-arid regions of the world (the Mediterranean basin, South and West Africa, and northeastern Brazil) (IPCC 2007c). North Africa today is severely affected by climate change and its temperature and precipitation consequences. In recent decades, the global occurrence of precipitation has decreased by 20–30% in winter and about 40% in summer, with this problem as more severe and deadly in the western parts (Christiansen et al. 2007). In this regard, a particular concern in the Middle East is related to Egypt, with the depletion of the Nile River due to the decreased rainfall will severely affect agriculture. This problem will increase pressures on the population when combined with a rise in temperature, especially in warmer months. Similarly, in Russia's case, the melting of Arctic glaciers, in the long run, will extensively destroy the infrastructures in coastal areas. Furthermore, the unprecedented hail (more than 20 cm in diameter) that caused massive damage in the United States in 2010 is one more example of the rainfall disorders (IPCC 2007c) due to climate change.

4.5 Extraterrestrial Pollutants

Over the past few years, there have been emerging events that have no domestic origin. These events generally have no precedent of this magnitude in the given countries. Dust storms are a meteorological phenomenon that usually occurs during hurricanes in arid and semi-arid climatic zones globally, receiving less than 200–250 mm annual rainfall. Lack of rainfall and drought, strong winds, atmospheric circulation characteristics, climate change, loss of vegetation, and severe erosion are factors that can be effective in creating and intensifying such phenomenon. In Africa, the Sahara Desert is regarded as the most significant source of dust, releasing 700 million tonnes of dust into the atmosphere annually. The most important dust regions in the Sahara Desert include the Boudelle Pit and western Mali.

Moreover, southern Algeria and eastern Mauritania have also a significant role in the dust storms of the world (Viana et al. 2008). According to Kim et al. (2003), when the dust phenomenon occurs, nearly 30% of the dust is deposited near the source, 20% is released locally, and more than half is transmitted over long distances (Kim et al. 2003). For example, dust storms in sub-Saharan Africa have increased particle concentrations in southern Spain. The amount of these particles is 10–23 times the standard value (Wang et al. 2015, 2006). Scientific reports reveal that storms have a unique role in transporting dust particles. It is estimated that 0.5 to 5 billion tonnes of dust particles produced in the primary sources are transported to other regions of the world annually by storms (Escudero et al. 2007; Prospero and Lamb 2003).

In some cases, the number of dust particles increases from 2.6 × 106 to 26.1 × 106 particles per cubic metre. Particles smaller than 2.5 µm can affect the lungs and cause serious health problems for humans (Griffin 2007).

Studies show that the Sahara Desert is the primary source of dust storms in arid and semi-arid regions (particularly in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Mongolia). Northwest America and Australia are other important sources of dust. Northeastern Mauritania, western Mali, and southern Algeria are among Africa's most essential dust sources (Hong 1993) (Fig. 3). Furthermore, the primary sources of dust entering Iran are desert areas of Syria, Iraq, and the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula. But the role of the Sahara Desert in the meantime is considered very small (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3
figure 3

The main dust-producing regions of the world

Full size image
Fig. 4
figure 4

The main dust-producing areas in Iraq

Full size image

5 Climate Change and Its Impact on the Security of the International System

Climate change can pave the way for regional developments by creating challenges and opportunities, especially the escalation of conflict in the regions most affected by these changes. Thus, it affects international order and security in the long run and challenges regional security in some parts of the world. Africa, especially the Sahara Desert (due to extreme heat) and South Africa (due to severe lack of rainfall), are more influenced by climate change disasters than any other region. In other words, these areas feel the damage more severely and more widely than other areas (Akhavan-Kazemi and Veisi 2016). In general, the major climate change effects on security can be summarised as follows:

  • Prevalence of infectious diseases;

  • Immigration;

  • Severe decline in agricultural production;

  • Freshwater shortage and insecurity; and

  • Increasing tension over energy resources;

6 Global Climatic Trends and Forecasts

Carbon dioxide is considered the primary basis for estimating and assessing the impact of greenhouse gases. Even the warming potential of other gases is measured based on this gas. For example, each molecule of methane and nitroxide is equivalent to 25 and 198 molecules of carbon dioxide, respectively, in global warming (IPCC 2006; Inventory 2010). Greenhouse gases are produced and absorbed by natural and unnatural greenhouse springs and wells shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Greenhouse gas springs and wells
Full size table

The Earth has become considerably warmer since reliable climatic information and data were recorded (Fig. 5). In the last 100 years, the average global temperature has upsurged by close to 0.7 °C (1.3 °F). Of the ten years that have been recorded as the warmest in the history of meteorology, nine have been recorded since 2000. In the Northern Hemisphere, 1983–2012 is regarded as the warmest 30-year period in the last 1400 years. Based on NOAA, 2014 was recognised as the warmest year since 1880. Ocean and land temperatures have risen more than one degree Fahrenheit above the twentieth century average.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Annual Global Temperature Abnormalities (°C), 1850–2012*. Zero baselines indicate the average global temperature of 1990–1961

Full size image

Evidence shows that the heating rate (currently around 0.13 °C per decade) is rising, and not all areas are heated equally. The temperature rise in the Arctic and Antarctica is almost twice that of the world (Fig. 6) due to the melting of the Arctic ice; since the oceans, the surface reflects less sunlight than the surface of ice; this phenomenon is characterised as reduced albedo.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Shrinking Arctic ice in the North (National Snow and Ice Data Center. Credit: Climate.gov.)

Full size image

IPCC in 2013 argued that changes in the global water cycle are due to human activities and impacts. In other words, the evidence for human impacts has increased, which are likely to be the leading causes of the warming experienced since the twentieth century (IPCC 2013).

Rising temperatures have had a significant impact on ecosystems. In most parts of the world, icebergs are receding. Studies show that there were about 150 icebergs in Montana when the Glacier National Park (GNP) was founded in 1990. But in 2010, only 25 icebergs larger than 100,000 square metres were existent, and it is estimated that by 2030, there will be no more icebergs in the park. Climate change is leading to rising seas due to the melting of mountains and icy areas. Further, between 1961 and 2003, the oceans warmed by an average of 0.1 °C. Combining these two issues has led to an annual increase of 2 mm in sea level.

Increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and rising temperatures lead to acidification of the oceans. According to NOAA, oceans have absorbed about half of the carbon dioxide that humans have produced since the industrial revolution. This has significantly decreased the intensity of global warming but has lowered the pH of the oceans, making them more acidic.

Recent reports in science show that the oceans have been acidifying rapidly for the past 300 years, with potential consequences on marine ecosystems. Coral reefs are more affected by ocean warming and acidification because they only form in a limited temperature range (Bradbury 2012).

Based on the climatic patterns and using future greenhouse gas emission assumptions, IPCC estimates that the average global temperature for the years 2081–2100 compared to 1986–2005 will exceed 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and reach 4.8 °C (6.8 °F). Therefore, the Arctic will heat up faster than the global average, and the average onshore will be higher than the ocean. The possible temperature increases are demonstrated in Fig. 7, and the distribution of global warming for low-end and high-end scenarios is shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Predicting global temperature trends by 2100

Full size image
Fig. 8
figure 8

Change in average surface temperature (1986–2005 to 2081–2100)

Full size image

7 Mitigation and Adaptation Policies in the Field of Climate Change

Given that climate change occurs faster, mitigation and adaptation policies in this area should also be addressed in the long or medium term. Such an approach makes it possible to change climate policies in line with new technological innovations and economic development. The effectiveness of mitigation policies varies according to the countries' social, economic, political, and geographical capacities. However, the degree of success in adaptation and mitigation programmes is directly related to the practical application of climate guidelines by the executive agencies. In this regard, the climate policies of countries must provide guarantees for compliance with the laws. Otherwise, global partnerships to mitigate the effects of climate change will not succeed.

By going through the literature, two approaches to managing and mitigating climate change impacts can be identified: top-down and bottom-up. Top-down approaches are generally related to international agreements on climate change, e.g., the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Bottom-up approaches are mainly made at the national and regional levels with the participation of various actors. In bottom-up approaches, the “cooperation of actors” is a crucial factor in mitigating the impacts of climate change. Further, to minimise the effects of climate change, two instruments, including market-based and control regulations, are usually used. Market-based instruments refer to the subsidies and taxes systems related to greenhouse gas emissions. Conversely, control regulations include specific restrictions on carbon footprints or emissions. In this approach, climate change actors are forced to use environmentally friendly innovations in control regulations (Jaffe and Stavins 2009).

8 Summary

Over the past two decades, climate change has impacted many countries and regions of the world. This phenomenon's negative impacts in developed and industrial lands are less than in developing and underdeveloped countries. Because many developing and underdeveloped countries do not have the economic capacity to deal with the negative impacts of this phenomenon or build the necessary infrastructure for climate change. In recent years, some developing countries, like that of the developed countries, have accounted for the widespread use of fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal) with China (28.21%), the United States (15.99%), India (6.24%), Russian (4.53%), Japan (3.67%), Germany (2.23%), Korea (1.75%), Iran (1.72%), Canada (1.71%), and Saudi Arabia (1.56%) as the largest producers of greenhouse gases in the world (Germanwath 2016). In this regard, the only practical and scientific way to reduce or counteract this natural phenomenon can be summed up in global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and supplying energy from renewable and non-fossil fuels requires macroeconomic investments and new technologies in various fields. Optimising energy consumption, using clean and renewable fuels instead of fossil fuels, and reducing carbon emissions are the key strategies in reducing a country's emissions. These measures are accompanied by declining revenues and the need for investment, so governments are trying to avoid accepting responsibilities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In other words, many countries try to delegate this responsibility to other countries as much as possible, and in return, take advantage of opportunities for economic and industrial development using inexpensive fossil fuels. Therefore, it is recommended that each country's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions be precisely determined, and responsibilities are defined in proportion to their share in greenhouse gas emissions.