Abstract
Odour-sound correspondences provide some of the most fascinating and intriguing examples of crossmodal associations, in part, because it is unclear from where exactly they originate. Although frequently used as similes, or figures of speech, in both literature and poetry, such smell-sound correspondences have recently started to attract the attention of experimental researchers too. To date, the findings clearly demonstrate that the majority of non-synaesthetic individuals associate orthonasally-presented odours with various different sound properties, e.g., pitch, instrument type, and timbre, in a non-random manner. What is more, these auditory-olfactory associations exhibit a number of features that are common to other crossmodal associations, such as their consistency over time, and their bidirectionality. However, the psychological mechanism(s) underpinning these associations in the general population remain(s) unclear, with a number of distinct hypotheses having been put forward over the years. In this chapter, we consider auditory-olfactory associations in art and science, focusing on poetry, music composition, and performance. First, we provide examples of the use of auditory-olfactory synaesthetic metaphors in poetry, from William Shakespeare through to Romanticism, illustrating how crossmodal associations have appeared in literature for centuries. Then, we move on to focus on music composition and performance, describing a number of examples where auditory stimuli have been purposely matched with crossmodally corresponding olfactory and/or visual stimuli. Considering the scientific study of smell-sound correspondences, we review the key psychophysical studies demonstrating that, beyond the artistic context, robust and non-random crossmodal associations are also triggered in the majority of the general population. We discuss a number of hypotheses that have been put forward over the years to account for such associations, focusing on the idea that certain correspondences between olfactory and auditory stimuli are mediated by the emotional character of the component stimuli.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
Note that while the majority of studies have focused on orthonasally-experienced odours, there is little reason to believe that the same findings would not also be obtained with retronasally-presented odours as well. However, to date, far fewer studies have chosen to deliver their odorants via the latter route.
- 2.
- 3.
Shakespeare, as far as we are aware, was not a synaesthete.
- 4.
“Now it is nearly time when, quivering on its stem,/ Each flower, like a censer, sprinkles out its scent;/ Sounds and perfumes are mingling in the evening air;/ Waltz of a mournfulness and languid vertigo!” (Baudelaire 1998).
- 5.
“I wanted for music a freedom that it contains, perhaps more than any other art, as it is not confined to a more or less exact reproduction of nature, but to the mysterious correspondences between Nature and the Imagination” (Kieffer 2019, p. 244).
- 6.
“So perfumes, colours, sounds may correspond./ Odours there are, fresh as a baby’s skin,/ Mellow as oboes, green as meadow grass,/ – Others corrupted, rich, triumphant, full,/ Having dimensions infinitely vast,/ Frankincense, musk, ambergris, benjamin,/ Singing the senses’ rapture, and the soul’s” (Baudelaire 1998).
- 7.
Hoffmann’s novel Johannes Kreisler, des Kapellmeisters Musikalische Leiden was first published in 1815.
- 8.
In addition to auditory and olfactory stimuli, dancing geishas provided stimuli to a third sense modality (i.e., vision).
- 9.
- 10.
https://yellowhousesydney.com.au/workshops/2016/10/13/the-scent-of-memory and Sebag-Montefiore (2016).
- 11.
- 12.
Only about 2% of the synaesthetes have either sound-smell (1.5%) or smell-sound (0.6%) synaesthesia, a very small proportion as compared with the 18.5% who have colour-sound synaesthesia (Day 2005).
- 13.
It is worth noting that for a concept (e.g., brightness) to be amodal, it needs to be the same physical property that is picked up by multiple senses. In contrast, in case of transitivity grounded on perceptual similarity, this implies that the two stimuli seem similar, but no common property is actually necessarily being picked-up by the various senses.
- 14.
Available online at https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/
- 15.
It has been used for marketing, by the Frito-Lay Inc. advertising campaign on Doritos, “The Loudest Taste on Earth”. However, as emerges from the spot (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0JmiXBoOks), the claim did not immediately refer to a crossmodal association, rather to the loud crunch that the tortilla produce when eaten.
- 16.
The “connotative account” also appears in the literature as a further explanation for crossmodal associations that seems to partially overlap with transitivity (Walker et al. 2012; Walker 2012; Walker 2016; Walker and Walker 2012; Albertazzi et al. 2015). According to such an account, it is hypothesized that different sensory channels can provide corresponding information about an object (e.g., both vision and audition indicate connotative brightness when they register surface brightness of the object and the relatively “bright”, i.e., high-pitched, sound emitted by the object, respectively).
- 17.
In his Compendium Musicae, Descartes defined music as intimately related to affectivity and he defined it as an act «ut delectet, variosque in nobis moveat affectus» (Descartes 2008, p. 15).
- 18.
The literature shows that those auditory stimuli perceived as emotionally-valenced have common acoustic features, e.g., for sad stimuli, low pitch, small pitch movement, quieter, slower, more mumbled articulation and darker timbre (see Huron 2011). Recently, Ma et al. (2019) developed a tool to predict, on the basis of musical features, the emotional responses of the listeners.
References
Ackerman, D. 1990. A natural history of the senses. New York: Random House.
Adeli, M., J. Rouat, and S. Molotchnikoff. 2014. Audiovisual correspondence between musical timbre and visual shapes. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8: 352.
Adolphs, R. 2010. Emotion. Current Biology 20: 549–552.
Albertazzi, L., L. Canal, and R. Micciolo. 2015. Crossmodal associations between materic painting and classical Spanish music. Frontiers in Psychology 6: 424.
Bahník, Š., B. Englich, and F. Strack. 2017. Anchoring effect. In Cognitive illusions: Intriguing phenomena in thinking, judgment and memory, ed. R.F. Pohl, 223–241. London: Routledge.
Barbiere, J.M., A. Vidal, and D.A. Zellner. 2007. The color of music: Correspondence through emotion. Empirical Studies of the Arts 25: 193–208.
Baron-Cohen, S.E., and J.E. Harrison. 1997. Synaesthesia: Classic and contemporary readings. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
Baudelaire, C. 1998. The flowers of evil (translated by J. McGowan). New York: Oxford University Press.
Belkin, K., R. Martin, S.E. Kemp, and A.N. Gilbert. 1997. Auditory pitch as a perceptual analogue to odor quality. Psychological Science 8 (4): 340–342.
Brown, S., X. Gao, L. Tisdelle, S.B. Eickhoff, and M. Liotti. 2011. Naturalizing aesthetics: Brain areas for aesthetic appraisal across sensory modalities. NeuroImage 58: 250–258.
Burdach, K.J. 1988. Geschmack und Geruch. Gustatorische, olfaktorische und trigeminale Wahrnehmung [Taste and smell. Gustatory, olfactory and trigeminal perception]. Bern: Huber.
Butler, S. 2014. Making scents of poetry. In Smell and the ancient senses, ed. M. Bradley, 1st ed., 74–99. London: Routledge.
Chen, Y.-C., and C. Spence. 2010. When hearing the bark helps to identify the dog: Semantically-congruent sounds modulate the identification of masked pictures. Cognition 114: 389–404.
Classen, C. 1998. The color of angels: Cosmology, gender and the aesthetic imagination. London: Routledge.
Clore, G.L., N. Schwarz, and M. Conway. 1994. Affective causes and consequences of social information processing. In Handbook of social cognition, ed. R.S. Wyers and T.K. Srull, 323–417. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Cohen, N.E. 1934. Equivalence of brightness across modalities. American Journal of Psychology 46: 117–119.
Cooke, D. 1959. The language of music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Corrigall, K.A., and E.G. Schellenberg. 2013. Music: The language of emotion. In Handbook of psychology of emotions: Recent theoretical perspectives and novel empirical findings, ed. C. Mohiyeddini, M. Eysenck, and S. Bauer, vol. 2, 299–325. Hauppauge: Nova.
Crisinel, A.-S., C. Jacquier, O. Deroy, and C. Spence. 2013. Composing with cross-modal correspondences: Music and smells in concert. Chemosensory Perception 6: 45–52.
Crisinel, A.-S., and C. Spence. 2010. As bitter as a trombone: Synesthetic correspondences in non-synesthetes between tastes and flavors and musical instruments and notes. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 72: 1994–2002.
———. 2012. A fruity note: Crossmodal associations between odors and musical notes. Chemical Senses 37 (2): 151–158.
Croijmans, I., and A. Majid. 2016. Not all flavor expertise is equal: The language of wine and coffee experts. PLoS One 11 (6): e0155845.
Cytowic, R.E. 1989. Synaesthesia: A union of the senses. New York: Springer.
———. 1993. The man who tasted shapes. New York: Putnam.
Dalton, P., C. Maute, A. Oshida, S. Hikichi, and Y. Izumi. 2008. The use of semantic differential scaling to define the multi-dimensional representation of odors. Journal of Sensory Studies 23: 485–497.
David, S. 2002. Linguistic expressions of odors in French. In Olfaction, taste and cognition, ed. C. Rouby, B. Schaal, D. Dubois, R. Gervais, and A. Holley, 82–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Day, S. 1996. Synaesthesia and synaesthetic metaphors. Psyche 2 (32): 1–16.
———. 2005. Some demographic and socio-cultural aspects of synesthesia. In Synesthesia: Perspectives from cognitive neuroscience, ed. L.C. Robertson and N. Sagiv, 11–33. New York: Oxford University Press.
De Valk, J.M., E. Wnuk, J.L. Huisman, and A. Majid. 2017. Odor–color associations differ with verbal descriptors for odors: A comparison of three linguistically diverse groups. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 24 (4): 1171–1179.
Dent, E.J. 1916. The musical interpretation of Shakespeare on the modern stage. The Musical Quarterly 2 (4): 523–537.
Deroy, O., A.-S. Crisinel, and C. Spence. 2013. Crossmodal correspondences between odors and contingent features: Odors, musical notes, and geometrical shapes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 20 (5): 878–896.
Deroy, O., and C. Spence. 2013. Why we are not all synesthetes (not even weakly so). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 20: 643–664.
Descartes, R. 2008. Compendium musicae. Bari: Stilo.
Dickinson, E. 1960. The complete poems of Emily Dickinson. Edited by T.H. Johnson. Boston: Little Brown.
Dubois, D. 1997. Cultural beliefs as nontrivial constraints on categorization: Evidence from colors and odors. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 20 (2): 188.
———. 2000. Categories as acts of meaning: The case of categories in olfaction and audition. Cognitive Science Quarterly 1: 35–68.
Dugan, H. 2008. Scent of a woman: Performing the politics of smell in early modern England. The Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 38 (2): 229–252.
———. 2009. Shakespeare and the senses. Literature Compass 6 (3): 726–740.
Ehrlichman, H., and L. Baston. 1992. Olfaction and emotion. In Science of olfaction, ed. M.J. Serby and K.L. Chobor, 410–438. New York: Springer.
Engen, T. 1982. The perception of odors. New York: Academic.
Evans, K.K., and A. Treisman. 2010. Natural cross-modal mappings between visual and auditory features. Journal of Vision 10 (1): 6.
Everest, K., J. Donovan, M. Rossington, and C. Duffy, eds. 2014. The poems of Shelley, volume 3: 1819–1820. New York: Longman.
Feng, Y., Y. Zhuang, and Y. Pan. 2003. Music information retrieval by detecting mood via computational media aesthetics. In Proceedings IEEE/WIC international conference on web intelligence (WI 2003) (pp. 235–241). Halifax: IEEE.
Finch, G.J. 1980. Wordsworth, Keats and “the language of the sense”. ARIEL: A Review of International English Literature 11 (2): 23–36.
Fleischer, M. 2012. Incense & decadents: Symbolist theatre’s use of scent. In The senses in performance, ed. S. Banes and A. Lepecki, 105–114. New York: Routledge.
Frijda, N.H. 1994. Varieties of affect: Emotions and episodes, moods, and sentiments. In The nature of emotion, ed. P. Ekman and R.J. Davidson, 59–67. New York: Oxford University Press.
Fritz, T., S. Jentschke, N. Gosselin, D. Sammler, I. Peretz, R. Turner, A.D. Friederici, and S. Koelsch. 2009. Universal recognition of three basic emotions in music. Current Biology 19 (7): 573–576.
Gabrielsson, A. 2001. Emotion perceived and emotion felt: Same or different? Musicae Scientiae 5: 123–147.
Gilbert, A.N., A.J. Fridlund, and L.A. Lucchina. 2016. The color of emotion: A metric for implicit color associations. Food Quality & Preference 52: 203–210.
Gilbert, A.N., R. Martin, and S.E. Kemp. 1996. Cross-modal correspondence between vision and olfaction: The color of smells. The American Journal of Psychology 109 (3): 335–351.
Greenberg, D.L., H.J. Rice, J.J. Cooper, R. Cabeza, D.C. Rubin, and K.S. LaBar. 2005. Co-activation of the amygdala, hippocampus and inferior frontal gyrus during autobiographical memory retrieval. Neuropsychologia 43 (5): 659–674.
Hanslick, E. 1986. On the musically beautiful: A contribution towards the revision of the aesthetics of music (Trans, and ed. Geoffrey Payzant). Indianapolis: Hackett.
Hartmann, S. 1913. In perfume land. The Forum 50: 217–228.
Hartshorne, C. 1934. The philosophy and psychology of sensation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hegel, G.W.F. 1975. Aesthetics. Lectures on fine art, trans. by T. M. Knox (2 Vols.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Henshaw, V., K. McLean, D. Medway, C. Perkins, and G. Warnaby, eds. 2018. Designing with smell: Practices, techniques and challenges. New York: Routledge.
Herz, R.S., and J. von Clef. 2001. The influence of verbal labeling on the perception of odors: Evidence for olfactory illusions? Perception 30 (3): 381–391.
Huron, D. 2011. Why is sad music pleasurable? A possible role for prolactin. Musicae Scientiae 15 (2): 146–158.
Huron, D., and J.K. Vuoskoski. 2020. On the enjoyment of tragic or sad portrayals: Pleasurable compassion theory and the role of trait empathy. Frontiers in Psychology 11: 1060.
Isbilen, E.S., and C.L. Krumhansl. 2016. The color of music: Emotion-mediated associations to Bach’s well-tempered Clavier. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain 26: 149–161.
Jackson, N. 2008. Science and sensation in romantic poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, F.L., ed. 1964. The letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley (2 Vols.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Juslin, P.N., and J.A. Sloboda. 2013. Music and emotion. In The psychology of music, ed. D. Deutsch, 583–645. Waltham: Academic.
Kawakami, A., K. Furukawa, and K. Okanoya. 2013. Music evokes vicarious emotions in listeners. Frontiers in Psychology 5: 431.
Kaye, D., and J. LeBrecht. 2015. Sound and music for the theatre: The art & technique of design. New York: Routledge.
Keats, J. 1969. Selected poetry and letters (edited by R. Fogle). San Francisco: Rinehart.
———. 2001. Complete poems and selected letters of John Keats. New York: Modern Library.
Kieffer, A. 2019. Debussy’s critics: Sound, affect, and the experience of modernism. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kivy, P. 1980. The corded shell: Reflections on musical expression. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Klutky, N. 1990. Zur psychologichen Klassification und Bedeutung von Gerüchen [On the psychological classification and meaning of smells]. Zeitschrift für experimentelle und angewandte. Psychologie 37: 608–622.
Knoeferle, K.M., A. Woods, F. Käppler, and C. Spence. 2015. That sounds sweet: Using cross-modal correspondences to communicate gustatory attributes. Psychology & Marketing 32 (1): 107–120.
Knöferle, K., and C. Spence. 2012. Crossmodal correspondences between sounds and tastes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 19: 992–1006.
Kotler, P. 1973. Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of Retailing 49 (4): 48–64.
Ladefoged, P., and K. Johnson. 2011. A course in phonetics. 6th ed. Boston: Wadsforth.
Lehrer, A. 2009. Wine & conversation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Levent, N., and A. Pascual-Leone, eds. 2014. The multisensory museum: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on touch, sound, smell, memory and space. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield.
Levinson, S.C., and A. Majid. 2014. Differential ineffability and the senses. Mind & Language 29 (4): 407–427.
Levitan, C.A., Charney, S.A., Schloss, K.B., and Palmer, S.E. 2015. The smell of jazz: Crossmodal correspondences between music, odor, and emotion. In Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1326–1331).
Lievers, F.S., and Huang, C.R. 2016. A lexicon of perception for the identification of synaesthetic metaphors in corpora. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC’16) (pp. 2270–2277).
Ma, B., Greer, T., Sachs, M., Habibi, A., Kaplan, J., and Narayanan, S. 2019. Predicting human-reported enjoyment responses in happy and sad music. In 2019 8th IEEE International Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII) (pp. 607–613).
Macdonald, H. 1983. Lighting the fire: Skryabin and colour. The Musical Times 124: 600–602.
Marks, L.E. 1975. On colored-hearing synesthesia: Cross-modal translations of sensory dimensions. Psychological Bulletin 82 (3): 303–331.
———. 1978. The unity of the senses: Interrelations among the modalities. New York: Academic.
———. 1987. On cross-modal similarity: Auditory-visual interactions in speeded discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 13: 384–394.
———. 1991. Metaphor and the unity of the senses. In Sensory science theory and applications in foods, ed. H.T. Lawless and B.P. Klein, 185–205. New York: Marcel Dekker.
———. 1996. On perceptual metaphors. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 11: 39–66.
Marks, L.E., R. Szczesiul, and P. Ohlott. 1986. On the cross-modal perception of intensity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 12 (4): 517–534.
Martino, G., and L.E. Marks. 2001. Synesthesia: Strong and weak. Current Directions in Psychological Science 10: 61–65.
Milliman, R.E. 1986. The influence of background music on the behavior of restaurant patrons. Journal of Consumer Research 13 (2): 286–289.
Mudge, E.L. 1920. The common synaesthesia of music. Journal of Applied Psychology 4 (4): 342–345.
Mukařovský, J. 2014. Standard language and poetic language. In Chapters from the history of Czech functional linguistics, ed. J. Chovanec, 41–53. Brno: Masarykova Univerzita.
North, A.C., and D.J. Hargreaves. 1998. The effect of music on atmosphere and purchase intentions in a cafeteria. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 28 (24): 2254–2273.
Nussbaum, M. 2001. Upheavals of thought: The intelligence of emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Olofsson, J.K., and J.A. Gottfried. 2015. The muted sense: Neurocognitive limitations of olfactory language. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 19 (6): 314–321.
O’Meara, C., S. Kung, and A. Majid. 2019. The challenge of olfactory ideophones: Reconsidering ineffability from the Totonac-Tepehua perspective. International Journal of American Linguistics 85: 173–212.
Palmer, S.E., K.B. Schloss, Z. Xu, and L.R. Prado-León. 2013. Music–color associations are mediated by emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (22): 8836–8841.
Parise, C.V., and C. Spence. 2012. Audiovisual crossmodal correspondences and sound symbolism: A study using the implicit association test. Experimental Brain Research 220: 319–333.
Piesse, G.W.S. 1867. The art of perfumery and the methods of obtaining the odors of plants: With instructions for the manufacture of perfumes for the handkerchief, scented powders, odorous vinegars, dentifrices, pomatums, cosmetics, perfumed soap, Etc., to which is added an appendix on preparing artificial fruit-essences, Etc. Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston.
Plailly, J., B. Tillmann, and J.P. Royet. 2007. The feeling of familiarity of music and odors: The same neural signature? Cerebral Cortex 17 (11): 2650–2658.
Robinson, J. 1994. The expression and arousal of emotion in music. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 52 (1): 13–22.
Roinard, P., F. de Labrély, L. Champagne, and N.J. Deák. 1976. The song of songs of Solomon. TDR 20 (3): 130–135.
Ruddick, N. 1984. ‘Synaesthesia’ in Emily Dickinson’s poetry. Poetics Today 5 (1): 59–78.
Schellenberg, E.G., A.M. Krysciak, and R.J. Campbell. 2000. Perceiving emotion in melody: Interactive effects of pitch and rhythm. Music Perception 18 (2): 155–171.
Scherer, K.R., and M.R. Zentner. 2001. Emotional effects of music: Production rules. In Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. P.N. Juslin and J.A. Sloboda, 361–392. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schifferstein, H.N.J., and I. Tanudjaja. 2004. Visualizing fragrances through colors: The mediating role of emotions. Perception 33: 1249–1266.
Schubert, E. 2013. Emotion felt by the listener and expressed by the music: Literature review and theoretical perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology 4: 837.
Sebag-Montefiore, C. 2016. Scent of memory: Smell and classical music prove an intoxicating combination. The Guardian, November 11th. https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/nov/11/scent-of-memory-smell-and-classical-music-prove-an-intoxicating-combination?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other.
Seo, H.-S., F. Lohse, C.R. Luckett, and T. Hummel. 2013. Congruent sound can modulate odor pleasantness. Chemical Senses 39 (3): 215–228.
Shakespeare, W. 1906. Twelfth night or what you will. London: Methuen.
Sheehy, A. 2018. “Les sons … tournent”: Debussy, the waltz, and embodied hermeneutics. In Debussy’s resonance, ed. F. De Médicis and S. Huebner, 326–352. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.
Shelley, P.B. 1824. Posthumous poems. London: John and Henry L. Hunt.
Shen, Y., and R. Aisenman. 2008. Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter: Synaesthetic metaphors and cognition. Language and Literature 17 (2): 107–121.
Shepherd-Barr, K. 1999. ‘Mise en scent’: The Théâtre d’Art’s Cantique des cantiques and the use of smell as a theatrical device. Theatre Research International 24: 152–159.
Simner, J., C. Cuskley, and S. Kirby. 2010. What sound does that taste? Cross-modal mappings across gustation and audition. Perception 39 (4): 553–569.
Soudry, Y., C. Lemogne, D. Malinvaud, S.M. Consoli, and P. Bonfils. 2011. Olfactory system and emotion: Common substrates. European Annals of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Diseases 128 (1): 18–23.
Spence, C. 2011. Crossmodal correspondences: A tutorial review. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 73 (4): 971–995.
———. 2019a. Multisensory experiential wine marketing. Food Quality & Preference 71: 106–116.
———. 2019b. On the relative nature of (pitch-based) crossmodal correspondences. Multisensory Research 32: 235–265.
———. 2020a. Assessing the role of emotional mediation in explaining crossmodal correspondences involving musical stimuli. Multisensory Research 33: 1–29.
———. 2020b. Senses of space: Designing for the multisensory mind. Cognitive Research: Principles & Implications (CRPI) 5: 46. https://rdcu.be/b7qIt.
———. 2020c. Olfactory-colour crossmodal correspondences in art, science, and design. Cognitive Research: Principles & Implications 5: 52.
Spence, C., and T. Bayne. 2014. Is consciousness multisensory? In Perception and its modalities, ed. M. Matthen, S. Biggs, and D. Stokes, 95–132. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Spence, C., X. Wan, A. Woods, C. Velasco, J. Deng, J. Youssef, and O. Deroy. 2015. On tasty colours and colourful tastes? Assessing, explaining, and utilizing crossmodal correspondences between colours and basic tastes. Flavour 4: 23.
Spence, C., and Q.J. Wang. 2015a. Wine & music (I): On the crossmodal matching of wine & music. Flavour 4: 34.
———. 2015b. Wine & music (II): Can you taste the music? Modulating the experience of wine through music and sound. Flavour 4: 33.
———. 2015c. Wine & music (III): So what if music influences taste? Flavour 4: 36.
Steiner, J.E., D. Glaser, M.E. Hawilo, and K.C. Berridge. 2001. Comparative expression of hedonic impact: Affective reactions to taste by human infants and other primates. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 25 (1): 53–74.
Stevens, S.S. 1957. On the psychophysical law. Psychological Review 64 (3): 153–181.
Stevenson, R.J., A. Rich, and A. Russell. 2012. The nature and origin of cross-modal associations to odours. Perception 41 (5): 606–619.
Taylor, R. 1963. Hoffmann. Studies in modern European literature and thought. Cambridge: Bowes & Bowes.
Trivedi, S. 2017. Imagination, music, and the emotions: A philosophical study. New York: SUNY.
Tsur, R. 1992. Toward a theory of cognitive poetics. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.
Ullman, S. 1957. Panchronistic tendencies in synaesthesia. In The principles of semantics, ed. S. Ullman, 266–289. Oxford: Blackwell.
Västfjäll, D. 2001. Emotion induction through music: A review of the musical mood induction procedure. Musicae Scientiae 5: 173–211.
von Hornbostel, E.M. 1931. Über Geruchshelligkeit [On smell brightness]. Pflügers Archiv für die Gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere 227: 517–538.
Walker, L., P. Walker, and B. Francis. 2012. A common scheme for cross-sensory correspondences across stimulus domains. Perception 41 (10): 1186–1192.
Walker, P. 2012. Cross-sensory correspondences and cross talk between dimensions of connotative meaning: Visual angularity is hard, high-pitched, and bright. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 74 (8): 1792–1809.
———. 2016. Cross-sensory correspondences: A theoretical framework and their relevance to music. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain 26 (2): 103–116.
Walker, P., and L. Walker. 2012. Size-brightness correspondence: Crosstalk and congruity among dimensions of connotative meaning. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 74: 1226–1240.
Walker, R. 1987. The effects of culture, environment, age, and musical training on choices of visual metaphors for sound. Perception & Psychophysics 42: 491–502.
Wender, I. 1968. Intensität und Qualität in der Geruchswarhnehmung [Intensity and quality in olfactory perception]. Psychologische Forschung 32: 244–276.
Wenk, A.B. 1976. Claude Debussy and the poets. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Whiteford, K.L., K.B. Schloss, N.E. Helwig, and S.E. Palmer. 2018. Color, music, and emotion: Bach to the blues. i-Perception 9 (6): 2041669518808535.
Williams, J.M. 1976. Synaesthetic adjectives: A possible law of semantic change. Language 32 (2): 461–478.
Winter, B. 2016a. Taste and smell words form an affectively loaded part of the English lexicon. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience 31 (8): 975–988.
———. 2016b. The sensory structure of the English lexicon. PhD thesis, University of California Merced.
———. 2019. Synaesthetic metaphors are neither synaesthetic nor metaphorical. In Perception metaphors, ed. L.J. Speed, C. O’Meara, L. San Roque, and A. Majid, 105–126. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
Wnuk, E., and A. Majid. 2014. Revisiting the limits of language: The odor lexicon of Maniq. Cognition 131 (1): 125–138.
Yeshurun, Y., and N. Sobel. 2010. An odor is not worth a thousand words: From multidimensional odors to unidimensional odor objects. Annual Review of Psychology 61: 219–241.
Zangwill, N. 2004. Against emotion: Hanslick was right about emotions. British Journal of Aesthetics 44 (1): 29–43.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Asifa Majid for her helpful suggestions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Di Stefano, N., Murari, M., Spence, C. (2022). Crossmodal Correspondences in Art and Science: Odours, Poetry, and Music. In: Di Stefano, N., Russo, M.T. (eds) Olfaction: An Interdisciplinary Perspective from Philosophy to Life Sciences. Human Perspectives in Health Sciences and Technology, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75205-7_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75205-7_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-75204-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-75205-7
eBook Packages: Religion and PhilosophyPhilosophy and Religion (R0)