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Servant Leadership and Redemption

The Missing Attribute

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The Palgrave Handbook of Servant Leadership

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Abstract

This chapter is believed to be an important work for several reasons. First of all, it references research done on Servant Leadership theories across a span of some 45 years since Greenleaf’s first work on the subject. Second, it catalogs 18 Servant Leadership theories based on Scripture. In doing so, it identifies a perceived gap in all of these SL theories using theological and hermeneutical arguments. It also considers where the redemptive work of Christ fits into leadership models that draw upon His life and work as their source and suggests a unique way to view the leadership of Jesus: “Acting Redemptively.”

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Business, Leadership and Management Department, College of Arts and Sciences, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA

    Joseph J. Bucci

  2. Evangel University, Springfield, MO, USA

    Paul Lewis

Authors
  1. Joseph J. Bucci
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  2. Paul Lewis
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joseph J. Bucci .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Business, Woodbury University, Burbank, CA, USA

    Satinder K. Dhiman

  2. Robertson School of Government, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA

    Gary E. Roberts

Appendices

Appendix 1: 18 Scripture-Based Servant Leadership Models: By Publication Date

Akuchie, N. D. (1993). The servants and the superstars: An examination of Servant Leadership in light of Matthew 20: 20–28.

Commentary: “Leadership in the perception of the world is a road to preeminence and “stardom,” a survival of the fittest. But Servant Leadership, which Christ embodied, is a contrast to the world’s understanding of leadership. It is the survival of the weakest.”

[Jesus] made it clear to them (1) that His disciples are called to be servants not superstars. Servant leaders are God-chosen and God-sent. The world expects leaders to be overachievers and superstars who dazzle and intimidate their subjects with their success laurels. The laurel for Servant Leadership is love – true love that is willing to spend and be spent, even as Christ demonstrated by His own example. (2) His disciples are an undifferentiated brotherhood, with love as their only distinction. He wanted them to know that He shows no partiality to some of His disciples, as the leaders of the world do to their favorites. (3) The paradoxical nature of Servant Leadership in comparison to the worldly principles of leadership: Any aspiration to greatness must be motivated by a desire to serve and not by self-gratification. (4) The patience and kindness of Jesus to His overly ambitious disciples. It is an attribute of a servant leader to be patient with the erring and the ignorant. He seeks in true love to restore to the truth those who have erred and have succumbed to the temptation to greatness and superstardom. Includes the following scriptures: Matthew 20:20–28; Luke 22:25–26; 1 Peter 2:21; and 1 John 3:16

Miller, C. (1995). The empowered leader: 10 Keys to Servant Leadership

Scripture References: Matt 20:27, 11:29, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, Psalms. The book uses many scriptures; however, its main threaded theme is 2 Samuel. The word “restoration” is used in Key 10 for the Restoration of Praise.

Model: Ten Keys to Servant Leadership

  • Key 1: Fostering an Honest Servant Image

  • Key 2: Seeing Yourself As a Leader: Learning the Art of Self-Perception

  • Key 3: Networking and the Special Friends of a Leader

  • Key 4: Vision: Gathering It Up and Giving It Out

  • Key 5: Decision: The Key to Leadership

  • Key 6: Defining, Structuring, and Motivating

  • Key 7: The Politics of Grace and the Abuse of Power

  • Key 8: Leadership: Coping with Difficult People

  • Key 9: Leadership: The Art of Delegation and Team Spirit

  • Key 10: Surviving a Visible Mistake (seeking forgiveness for one’s own mistakes)

Pollard, C. W. (1996). The leader who serves. In F. Hesselbein, M. Goldsmith, & R. Beckhard (Eds), The leader of the future: New visions, strategies, and practices for the next era

Scripture References: Ecclesiastes

Model: Seven Roles of Servant Leadership

  1. 1.

    Committed

  2. 2.

    Listen and learn

  3. 3.

    Givers not takers

  4. 4.

    Want to serve

  5. 5.

    Promote diversity

  6. 6.

    Provide a learning/growing environment

  7. 7.

    Value-driven and performance-oriented

Sims, B.J. (1997). Servanthood: Leadership for the third millennium

Scripture References: Psalms, Matthew 5–7, Mark 10:35–45, 2 Corinthians 5, and others

Model: Principles of Servant Leadership:

  1. 1.

    A learner who promotes sharing of vision

  2. 2.

    A person who uses power to solve the thing that is necessary for others

  3. 3.

    A person who promotes cooperation with the community

  4. 4.

    A person who accepts other’s opinions

  5. 5.

    A person who communicates with others honestly

  6. 6.

    A person who encourages others

Wilkes, C. G. (1998). Jesus on leadership

Scripture References: Mt.20:28, Mark 10:42–45, and others

Model: Summary of Principles – Wilkes distills Jesus’ approach to leadership into seven principles (25–27):

  1. 1.

    Humble your heart: Servant leaders humble themselves and wait for God to exalt them.

  2. 2.

    First be a follower: Servant leaders follow Jesus rather than seek a position.

  3. 3.

    Find greatness in service: Servant leaders give up personal rights to find greatness in service to others. Scripture reference for the comparison: Mark 10: 42–45 (cross-listed with Matthew 20: 28) page 25 and page 87.

  4. 4.

    Take risks: Servant leaders can risk serving others because they trust that God is in control of their lives.

  5. 5.

    Take up the towel: Servant leaders take up the towel of servanthood in order to meet the needs of others.

  6. 6.

    Share responsibility and authority: Servant leaders share their responsibility and authority with others to meet the needs of the flock.

  7. 7.

    Build a team: Servant leaders multiply the impact of their leadership by empowering others to lead.

Rinehart, S.T. (1998). Upside down: The paradox of Servant Leadership

Scripture References: Gospel of John, Matthew 20:28, Mark 10:43–44, Colossians, 2 Corinthians, 1 Peter, 1 Timothy, and others

Model: The four Values of Servant Leadership

  1. 1.

    Diversity of the body: freedom to vary methods, styles, forms, and visions

  2. 2.

    Equip and develop people

  3. 3.

    Directs people to the scriptures

  4. 4.

    Authenticity

Rinehart also distinguishes between “power leaders” and “servant leaders.”

Power leaders

Servant leaders

Feed on the spotlight

Share the spotlight

Have a high turnover

Nurture loyal colleagues

Keep the focus on themselves and their agenda

Affirm kingdom agendas

Refer to their title frequently

Use their title rarely

Use images, offices, and perks to reveal their status

Abhor power images

Blanchard, K. H., Hybels, B., & Hodges, P. (1999). Leadership by the book: Tools to transform your workplace

Scripture References: Mt.20:28, Mark 10:42–45, and others

Model: Summary of Principles:

  1. 1.

    Effective leadership starts on the inside.

  2. 2.

    Real change in behavior requires a real change of the heart.

  3. 3.

    True leadership starts on the inside with a servant heart, then moves outward to serve others.

  4. 4.

    I take on the challenge of leadership when I see it as a way in which I can serve others.

  5. 5.

    My main interest is the development and care for those I lead.

  6. 6.

    I want to be held accountable for my leadership performance.

  7. 7.

    I am willing to listen, and, in actuality, I enjoy receiving feedback to help me improve my leadership.

  8. 8.

    Leaders are not meant to be served, but to serve others.

  9. 9.

    I praise the progress of my people; I look to catch them doing something right.

  10. 10.

    Servant Leadership is not about pleasing everyone, but pleasing God first, developing people second, attaining the Company’s mission, and finally finding satisfaction in achieving all three.

  11. 11.

    Effective leaders have a support/accountability group to keep them on track.

  12. 12.

    Leaders regularly make an inventory of their actions, motives, and thoughts, to be sure that they are consistent with the Servant Leadership model.

Laub, J. A. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the Servant Organizational Leadership Assessment (SOLA) instrument (Doctoral dissertation)

Scripture References: I Kings 12:4, 12:7, 12:10–11; Luke 22:25–27; Matthew 20:28; and Mark 9:35

Model: Six Discrete Elements of Servant Leadership:

  1. 1.

    Values people

  2. 2.

    Develops people

  3. 3.

    Builds community

  4. 4.

    Displays authenticity

  5. 5.

    Provides leadership

  6. 6.

    Shares leadership

The same attributes were part of a future work by this same author:

Laub, J. (2005). From paternalism to the servant organization: Expanding the Organizational Leadership Assessment (OLA) Model

Moon, S. M. (1999). A study of Servant Leadership in Korea (Master’s thesis)

Scripture References: Mark 9:35; Psalm 24:1, Acts 26:16, Acts 13, Ephesians 6:5–7, Luke 1:2, John 13:15–17; 18:36, Mark 10:44–45, Philippians 2:7–8, and many others

Model: Nine Critical Factors of Servant Leadership:

  1. 1.

    God’s calling

  2. 2.

    Relationship

  3. 3.

    Obedience

  4. 4.

    Prayer

  5. 5.

    Humility

  6. 6.

    Accountability

  7. 7.

    Vision

  8. 8.

    Mentoring

  9. 9.

    Love

Rardin, R. (2001). The servant’s guide to leadership: Beyond first principles

Scripture References: Matthew (?), Mark (?), and others

Model: The Ten Facets of Servant Leadership

  1. 1.

    Focuses on the individual

  2. 2.

    Empathic

  3. 3.

    Caring

  4. 4.

    Self-sacrificing

  5. 5.

    Nurturing

  6. 6.

    Stoops

  7. 7.

    Submits to gifts of others

  8. 8.

    Saves

  9. 9.

    Full of grace

  10. 10.

    Humbly serves the purpose of God in the lives of others

Marciariello, J. (2003). Lessons in leadership and management from Nehemiah

Scripture references: Nehemiah; Mark 10:42–45

Model:

Servant leadership traits

Christ-exalting leaders

Sincerity

Genuinely sensitive and enthusiastic

Tenacity

Steadfast, strongly enduring commitment

Mood

Dedicated to service regardless of personal condition

Scope

Service valued in itself; scope of impact secondary to faithful service

Realm

Basic willingness to serve anyone as requirements dictate; rank unimportant in determining who one seeks to serve

Rewards

The cause gives service inherent value: “The reward of service is more service”; motivation and continued commitment independent of external rewards and recognition

  1. Also mentioned: Humanity and Humility

DelHousaya, D., & Brewer, B. (2004). Servant Leadership: The seven distinctive characteristics of a servant leader

Scripture References: Matthew (?), Gospel of John, and others

Model: Seven Distinctives of Servant Leadership:

  1. 1.

    A servant leader knows their person [power].

  2. 2.

    A servant leader knows their position [authority].

  3. 3.

    A servant leader knows their purpose [rule].

  4. 4.

    A servant leader knows their provision [headship].

  5. 5.

    A servant leader knows their perception [example].

  6. 6.

    A servant leader knows their profession [servant].

  7. 7.

    A servant leader knows their preference [humility].

Sullivan, J. J. (2004). Servant first!: Leadership for the new millennium

Scripture References: Mt.20:28, Mark 10:42–45, and others

Model: Summary of Principles – A servant leader does these things…

  1. 1.

    Showing compassion (representing patience and focus on the individual)

  2. 2.

    Demonstrating humility

  3. 3.

    Remaining impartial

  4. 4.

    Living a life of integrity

  5. 5.

    Building trust by being trustworthy

  6. 6.

    Applying knowledge and experience while developing wisdom

Taylor, J. (2004). Servant Leadership. Encounter: Journal for Pentecostal Ministry, 1(2)

Scripture Reference: Mt.20:28

Model: Four Principles of Servant Leadership

  1. 1.

    Truly “great” ministry must be marked by selflessness.

  2. 2.

    Those truly in a servant’s position recognize that their status is not based upon who they are or what they do, but to whom they belong.

  3. 3.

    Servants owe their masters exclusive and absolute obedience.

  4. 4.

    Servants do not strive by their own efforts to provide for their needs and amass great earthly possessions. Rather, the servant relies on the provision of the Master.

Pham, H. (2005). The most important qualities of Servant Leadership

Scripture References: Proverbs, Acts, Matthew (?), Samuel, Gospel of Luke, Mark (?), Gospel of John, Numbers, Job, and others

Model: Five Important Qualities of Servant Leadership

  1. 1.

    Honesty and trust

  2. 2.

    Communication

  3. 3.

    Integrity

  4. 4.

    Faith

  5. 5.

    Prayer

Prosser, S. (2007). To be a servant-leader

Scripture References: Matthew (?), Numbers, Acts, and others

Model: Five Nature and Qualities of Servant Leadership

  1. 1.

    Attitudes

  2. 2.

    Vision

  3. 3.

    Respect

  4. 4.

    Change and counsel

  5. 5.

    Reward

Wong, P. T. P., & Davey, D. (2007, July). Best practices in Servant Leadership

Scripture References: Mark 10:42–45, Philippians 2:6–8 (Mentions that Jesus took on the nature of a servant to redeem us and minister to us. Does not include redemption or restoration in any of the best practices, although close themes)

Model: Five Best Practices of Servant Leadership

  1. 1.

    Right identity – seeing oneself as a servant: cultivating humility, selflessness, stewardship, and sense of calling

  2. 2.

    Right motivation – serving God by serving others: helping hand, sacrifice one’s self interest, bring our best in others, and empowering others

  3. 3.

    Right method – relating to others in a positive manner: listening with empathy, involve others in decision-making, engage others in team building, and affirming others

  4. 4.

    Right impact – inspiring others to serve a higher purpose: modeling core values, demonstrating love, challenging others to live for a higher purpose, and challenging others to strive for excellence

  5. 5.

    Right character – maintaining integrity and authenticity: walking the talk, standing up for what you believe in, courage to confront grim realities, and engage in honest evaluation of your progress with others’ help

Ebener, D. R. (2011). On becoming a servant leader: Seven myths and seven paradoxes of Christian leadership

Scripture References: Mark 10:42–45, Mt. 23:11; Mark 9:33–36; and many others

Model: Seven Myths and Seven Paradoxes of Servant Leadership

Myth 1: Servant Leadership is soft

Paradox 1: Servant Leadership is neither hard nor soft

Myth 2: Servant leaders cannot hold positions of authority

Paradox 2: Servant Leadership is not a position, but servant leaders can hold a position of authority

Myth 3: Servant leaders convince people to follow their vision

Paradox 3: Servant leaders create a sense of shared vision

Myth 4: Servant leaders are selfless

Paradox 4: The servant leader is humble, not selfless

Myth 5: Servant leaders do not get great results

Paradox 5: Servant leaders are ambitious but direct their ambition toward the organization not themselves

Myth 6: Servant leaders are powerless

Paradox 6: Servant leaders gain power as they serve others

Myth 7: Servant leaders do unto others what they would have others do unto them

Paradox 7: Servant leaders practice both the iron Rule and the Golden Rule

Honorable mentions: Scripturally based descriptions of Servant Leadership but no distinct model:

Purdy, J.C. (1989). Returning God’s call: The challenge of Christian living

Chapter 10: The Call to Servant Leadership (Matthew 20:20–28)

Appendix 2: An Analysis of Fifty Servant Leadership Models

Code: ** indicates works with scriptural references (18). These models are in “Appendix 1” above.

Total 12 of the 18 Scripture-based works contain Matthew 20:28 or Mark 10:45 or both.

Year

Who

Model

1977

Greenleaf

13 Key Attributes of Servant Leadership

1991

Graham

2 Mechanisms of SL/Framed within 4 classifications of Charismatic Leadership

1992

Kiechel and Rosenthal

5 Aspects of Servant Leadership

**1993

Akuchie

Commentary on Servant Leadership in Light of Mt. 20

1995

Millard

7 Traits and 7 Inner Qualities of Servant Leadership

**1995

Miller (Mt. 20:27)

10 Keys to Servant Leadership

1995

Spears

10 Characteristics of Servant Leadership

**1996

Pollard

7 Roles of Servant Leadership

1996

Sarkus

6 Fundamental Precepts of Servant Leadership

**1997

Sims (Mk. 10:45)

6 Principles of Servant Leadership

**1998

Wilkes (Mt. 20:28; Mk. 10:45)

7 Principles of Servant Leadership

1998

Buchen

4 Characteristics of Servant Leadership

**1998

Rinehart (Mt. 20:28; Mk. 10:43–44)

4 Values of Servant Leadership

1998

Ehrhart, 1998 and 2004

7 Major Categories of Servant Leadership Behavior

**1999

Blanchard, et al. (Mt. 20:28; Mk. 10:45)

12 Principles of Servant Leadership

1999

Daft

4 Basic Precepts of Servant Leadership

1999

Farling, Stone, and Winston

4 Cornerstones of Servant Leadership

**1999

Laub, 1999 and 2005 (Mt. 20:28)

6 Discrete Elements of Servant Leadership

**1999

Moon (Mark 10:44–45)

9 Critical Factors of Servant Leadership

2000

Page and Wong

12 Attributes and 4 Orientations of Servant Leadership

**2001

Rardin

10 Facets of Servant Leadership

2002

McGee-Cooper and Trammell

13 Qualities of Servant Leadership

2002

Russell and Stone

9 Functional Attributes and 11 Accompanying Attributes of Servant Leadership

2002

Polleys, M.S.

Major Leadership Theories and the Servant Leadership Model: Who the Leader Is; What the Leader Does; and Where the Leadership Takes Place

2002

Barbuto and Wheeler

11 Characteristics of Servant Leadership

**2003

Marciariello (Mk. 10:45)

5 Servant Leadership Traits

2003

Patterson

7 Virtues of Servant Leadership

2003

Winston

13 Extended Variables of Servant Leadership

2003

Sendjaya (see also 2008 with Sarros and Santora)

6 Dimensions of Servant Leadership (see also 2008)

2004

Autry

5 Ways of Being of Servant Leaders

**2004

DelHousaya and Brewer

7 Distinctives of Servant Leaders

2004

Frick

10 Skills and Capacities of Servant Leadership

**2004

Sullivan (Mt. 20:28; Mk. 10:45)

6 Principles of Servant Leadership

**2004

Taylor (Matthew 20:25–28)

4 Principles of Servant Leadership

2004

Wheatly

7 Keys to Servant Leadership

2004

Parolini (2004 and 2007)

Effective Servant Leadership Model (2004); Five major distinctions between Transformational and Servant Leadership (2007)

**2005

Pham

5 Important Qualities of Servant Leadership

2006

van Dierendonck and Heeren

15 Motivations and Behaviors of Servant Leadership

2006

Barbuto and Wheeler

Servant Leadership Questionnaire Items: Refinement of Servant Leadership – A Five-Dimension Construct

2006

Irving and Matteson

3 Dimensions of Servant Leadership; 17 Servant Leadership Factors

**2007

Prosser

5 Nature and Qualities of Servant Leadership

**2007

Wong and Davey (Mk. 10:45)

5 Best Practices of Servant Leadership

2008

Keith

7 Key Practices of Servant Leadership

2008

Liden

9 Factors/7 Distinguishable Factors

2009

Sipe and Frick

7 Pillars of Servant Leadership

2011

McGee-Cooper and Trammell

10 Defining Qualities of Servant Leadership

2011

Reed, Vidaver-Cohen, & Colwell

5 Executive Servant Leadership Factors

**2011

Ebener (Mk. 10:45; Mt. 23:11; etc.)

Servant Leadership: 7 Myths and Paradoxes

2015

Mathews and Lhamo

Servant Leadership 5 Component Analyses

2015

Focht and Ponton

12 Primary Characteristics of Servant Leadership

Appendix 3: Additional Words Associated with Redemption for Data Comparison

Additional Words Associated with Redemption and Their Source

Ransom (Matthew 20:28; Mark 10:45)

Redemption (Matthew 20:28, Douay-Rheims Bible, 1582)

Reinstatement (Darnay et al., 2007)

Restoration (Plantinga, 2002)

Redemption defined: Release/Releasing from Enslavement (Palma, 1993)

Redemption defined: Buy/Purchase/Acquire (Macarthur, 2005)

Redemption defined: Pay Price to Free from Bondage (Macarthur, 2005)

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Bucci, J.J., Lewis, P. (2022). Servant Leadership and Redemption. In: Dhiman, S.K., Roberts, G.E. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Servant Leadership. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69802-7_91-1

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