Abstract
Despite the human brain being considered the most complex living organ, our objective is to make the presentation and understanding of brain anatomy easy and quick. To achieve this, we use a 3D electronic brain atlas created from multiple 3 and 7 Tesla in vivo scans of the same brain specimen to assure spatial consistency.
The 3D cerebral models are fully parcellated, completely labelled, uniquely colour-coded, electronically dissectible, and formed into modules, groups, and individual components. The structural, vascular, and connectional neuroanatomies are described and illustrated with the atlas.
The brain is subdivided into cerebrum (the paired cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, and deep grey matter nuclei), cerebellum (the paired cerebellar hemispheres united by the vermis), and brainstem (the midbrain, pons, and medulla). The cortical areas, parcellated into lobes, gyri, sulci, and Brodmann’s areas, are described and illustrated. The vascular neuroanatomy covers the arterial system (the anterior and posterior circulations) and the venous systems (the dural sinuses and the cerebral superficial and deep veins). The connectional neuroanatomy contains and illustrates the cerebral connections (the commissural, association, and projection tracts) and the cerebellar (superior, middle, and inferior) peduncles.
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2.1 Introduction
The animal central nervous system (CNS) has been evolved over the last 600 million years, and the human CNS is the most complex living organ in the known universe. The CNS has been extensively investigated, particularly over a few last centuries, and a vast body of materials, resources, and data have been gathered in the print form and more recently also in electronic format. Neuroanatomy is presented in numerous textbooks [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22], print brain atlases [23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51], and electronic brain atlases [52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74]. Several textbooks combine text with atlases [14, 15, 43, 44], and some provide neuroanatomy for various specialties including neurosurgery [1, 19, 22], neuroradiology [8, 17, 20], neurology [2], and neuroscience [18].
The comprehension of neuroanatomy is crucial in any neurosurgical, neuroradiological, neuro-oncological, or neurological procedure. Therefore, CNS anatomy has been intensively studied by generations of neuroanatomists, neuroscientists, neurosurgeons, neurologists, neuroradiologists, neurobiologists, psychologists, and psychologists, among others, including Renaissance artists. These efforts resulted, however, in neuroanatomy discrepancies, inconsistencies, and even controversies among various communities in terms of parcellation (subdivision), demarcation, grouping, terminology, and presentation.
This work differs from the existing neuroanatomy primers. Our overall objective is to make the presentation and understanding of human brain anatomy quick and easy. In order to achieve this objective:
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The presentation of neuroanatomy is in three dimensions (3D) with additional supportive planar images in the orthogonal (axial, coronal, and sagittal) planes.
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The brain is subdivided into structure, vasculature, and connections (white matter tracts); consequently, we consider structural, vascular, and connectional neuroanatomies.
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3D cerebral models of structure, vasculature, and tracts are mutually consistent spatially, because they were derived from the same brain living specimen.
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3D cerebral models and the planar images are fully parcellated; each parcellated object is uniquely colored.
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3D cerebral models and the planar images are completely labelled (named); as a terminology we use the Terminologia Anatomica [75].
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3D cerebral models are electronically dissectible into modules, groups, and individual components allowing the atlas user for a fast scene composing (structure assembly and/or disassembly).
In this work I use my digital brain atlases that have been developed for more than two decades [63,64,65,66,67,68,69] (see the recent editorial [117]). The 3D cerebral models have been created from multiple 3 and 7 Tesla magnetic resonance scans of my brain [69]. The development of the atlases is addressed in [78,79,80,81,82], tools for their creation in [77], techniques for modelling of cerebral structures in [76, 78, 92], and atlas-based applications in [79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91].
The recent (i.e. from the first edition of this book) developments in our brain atlasing are covered in [93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116], including the extension of the virtual brain to the head and neck. They also contain an overview of computational and mathematical methods for brain atlasing [115] and future directions [116].
2.2 Structural (Gross) Neuroanatomy
We present parcellation (subdivision) of the brain in 3D followed by sectional neuroanatomy. The stereotactic target structures and functional cortical areas also are outlined.
2.2.1 Brain Parcellation
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain encases the fluid-filled ventricular system and is parcellated into three main componentsFootnote 1 (Fig. 2.1a):
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Cerebrum
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Cerebellum (the little brain)
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Brainstem
The cerebrum comprises:
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Left and right cerebral hemispheres
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Interbrain between the cerebrum and the brainstem termed the diencephalon
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Deep grey nuclei (other than diencephalic)
The cerebral hemispheres are the largest compartment of the brain, and they are interconnected by white matter fibres (see Sect. 2.4.2). The hemispheres are composed~of:
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Outer grey matter termed the cerebral cortex
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Inner white matter encompassing the diencephalon and deep grey nuclei
The grey matter contains mainly nerve cell bodies, while the white matter is made up predominantly of nerve fibres (axons). The cerebral cortex is highly convoluted. These folds form so-called gyri that are separated by grooves termed sulci or fissures (deep sulci). The cerebral hemispheres are parcellated into five lobes (Fig. 2.1b,c):
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Frontal lobe
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Temporal lobe
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Parietal lobe
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Occipital lobe
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Limbic lobe
The insula is sometimes classified as the (sixth) central or insular lobe. The lobes are partly demarcated by the sulci/fissures (Fig. 2.1). The central sulcus separates the frontal lobe anterior from the parietal lobe posterior (Fig. 2.1b). The Sylvian (lateral) fissure demarcates the temporal lobe below from the frontal and parietal lobes above (Fig. 2.1b). The parieto-occipital fissure separates the parietal lobe anterior from the occipital lobe posterior (Fig. 2.1c). The cingulate sulcus separates the frontal lobe above from the limbic lobe below (Fig. 2.1c).
The diencephalon contains numerous nuclei grouped into four parts (Fig. 2.1c):
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Thalamus (see also Fig. 2.6)
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Subthalamus including the subthalamic nucleus (see Sect. 2.2.6)
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Hypothalamus (see also Fig. 2.10a)
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Epithalamus (comprising the pineal gland)
The cerebellum is composed of (Fig. 2.2a):
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Left and right cerebellar hemispheres
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Midline vermis which unites them
The brainstem is subdivided into (Fig. 2.2b):
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Midbrain
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Pons
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Medulla (oblongata)
2.2.2 Cortical Areas
The cortex has three surfaces: lateral, medial, and inferior (also called basal or ventral). Moreover, the transitional areas form the frontal, temporal, and occipital poles (see, e.g. Figs. 2.5 and 2.27).
2.2.2.1 Lateral Cortical Surface
Four lobes are present on the lateral cortical surface: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital (Fig. 2.1b). The lateral surface of the frontal lobe is subdivided by three sulci (the superior frontal sulcus, inferior frontal sulcus, and precentral sulcus) into four gyri (Fig. 2.3):
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Superior frontal gyrus
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Middle frontal gyrus
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Inferior frontal gyrus
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Precentral gyrus
The lateral surface of the temporal lobe is subdivided by two sulci (the superior temporal sulcus and inferior temporal sulcus) into three gyri (Fig. 2.3):
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Superior temporal gyrus
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Middle temporal gyrus
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Inferior temporal gyrus
The lateral surface of the parietal lobe is subdivided by two sulci (the postcentral sulcus and intraparietal sulcus) into three gyri (Fig. 2.3):
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Postcentral gyrus
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Superior parietal gyrus (lobule)
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Inferior parietal gyrus (lobule)
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Supramarginal gyrus
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Angular gyrus
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The lateral surface of the occipital lobe is subdivided by two sulci (the superior occipital sulcus and inferior occipital sulcus) into three gyri (Fig. 2.3):
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Superior occipital gyrus
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Middle occipital gyrus
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Inferior occipital gyrus
2.2.2.2 Medial Cortical Surface
The frontal, parietal, occipital, and limbic lobes are present on the medial surface of the cortex (Fig. 2.1c). The limbic lobe contains the gyri located at the inner edge (or limbus) of the hemisphere including (Fig. 2.4):
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Subcallosal gyrus (areas)
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Cingulate gyrus
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Isthmus (of cingulate gyrus)
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Parahippocampal gyrus
The medial frontal gyrus and the paracentral lobule separated from the limbic lobe by the cingulate sulcus (Fig. 2.1c) occupy most of the medial surface of the frontal lobe (Fig. 2.4). The parietal lobe includes the precuneus (Fig. 2.4) separated from the occipital lobe by the parieto-occipital fissure (Fig. 2.1c). The occipital lobe comprises the cuneus and the lingual gyrus separated by the calcarine sulcus (fissure) (Fig. 2.4).
2.2.2.3 Inferior Cortical Surface
The inferior surface of the cortex includes the frontal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The frontal lobe comprises (Fig. 2.5):
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Straight gyrus
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Orbital gyri parcellated by the approximately H-shaped sulcus into the anterior, medial, lateral, and posterior orbital gyri
The temporal and occipital lobes are subdivided by two sulci (the lateral occipitotemporal sulcus and medial occipitotemporal (collateral) sulcus) into three gyri (Fig. 2.5):
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Medial occipitotemporal gyrus whose temporal part constitutes the parahippocampal gyrus and the occipital part the lingual gyrus
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Lateral occipitotemporal gyrus (called also the fusiform gyrus)
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Inferior temporal gyrus
2.2.3 Deep Grey Nuclei
The deep grey nuclei are paired grey matter structures. The main deep grey nuclei (other than the diencephalic nuclei discussed in Sect. 2.2.1) are (Fig. 2.6):
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Basal ganglia (nuclei)
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Caudate nucleus
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Lentiform nucleus
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Putamen
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Globus pallidus
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Lateral (or outer) segment
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Medial (or inner) segment (see also Sect. 2.2.6)
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Hippocampus
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Amygdala (amygdaloid body)
The putamen and the caudate nucleus form the striatum.
2.2.4 Ventricular System
The ventricular system contains four interconnected cerebral ventricles (cavities) filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (Fig. 2.7a):
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Left and right lateral ventricles
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Third ventricle
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Fourth ventricle
CSF is secreted mainly in the choroid plexus (a network of vessels) and circulates from the lateral ventricles through the paired interventricular foramina (of Monro) to the third ventricle and then via the aqueduct to the fourth ventricle (Fig. 2.7a). The lateral ventricles are the largest and each contains (Fig. 2.7b):
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Body (or central portion)
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Atrium (or trigon)
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Horns
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Frontal (anterior)
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Occipital (posterior)
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Temporal (inferior)
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2.2.5 Sectional Neuroanatomy
Sectional (planar) neuroanatomy is typically presented on orthogonal (axial, coronal, and sagittal) images. In order to spatially locate the orthogonal images, we place them in the Talairach coordinate system [48], which is a stereotactic reference system based on the anterior and posterior commissures (see also Fig. 2.28a) with the origin at the centre of the anterior commissure (see also Figs. 2.8, 2.9, and 2.10).
Four axial images located at −12 mm, +1 mm, +12 mm, and +24 mm (where ‘−’ denotes the level below and ‘+’ above the anterior commissure) with the cortical areas and deep grey nuclei segmented and labelled are shown in Fig. 2.8.
Two coronal images passing through the anterior and posterior commissures are presented in Fig. 2.9.
Two sagittal images located at 3 mm and 21 mm from the midline are shown in Fig. 2.10.
2.2.6 Main Stereotactic Target Structures
Several subcortical structures (and more recently also some cortical areas) are therapeutic stimulation targets in stereotactic and functional neurosurgery [83] to treat movement disorders (mainly Parkinson’s disease), epilepsy, pain, and mental disorders (psychosurgery). The main stereotactic target structures are:
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Subthalamic nucleus (a part of the basal ganglia) (Fig. 2.11)
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Ventrointermediate nucleus of the thalamus (Fig. 2.12)
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Globus pallidus interna (medial segment) (Fig. 2.13)
The subthalamic nucleus presented on the triplanar (the axial, coronal, and sagittal planes) is shown in Fig. 2.11.
The ventrointermediate nucleus of the thalamus on the triplanar is presented in Fig. 2.12.
The globus pallidus interna on the triplanar is illustrated in Fig. 2.13.
All three target structures in 3D placed in the Talairach stereotactic coordinate system are shown in Fig. 2.14.
2.2.7 Functional Areas
Several parcellations are introduced to subdivide the cortical regions into functional areas [16]. Brodmann’s parcellation that is based on histology (cytoarchitecture) is the most widely used, and it is illustrated in axial orientation in Fig. 2.15. Brodmann’s areas are useful in neuroscience and functional studies because many of Brodmann’s areas, defined based on their neuronal organisation, have since been correlated closely to diverse cortical functions.
2.3 Vascular Neuroanatomy
The knowledge of cerebrovasculature is crucial in stroke, vascular, and tumour surgery as well as interventional neuroradiology. The complete cerebrovasculature is highly complex and variable (Fig. 2.16). It is subdivided into:
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Arterial system
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Venous system with the cerebral veins and dural sinuses
2.3.1 Arterial System
2.3.1.1 Parcellation of Arterial System
The brain is supplied by two pairs of arteries, left and right internal carotid arteries anteriorly and left and right vertebral arteries posteriorly forming the basilar artery (Fig. 2.17a), that are interconnected by the circle of Willis (Fig. 2.21).
The internal carotid artery branches into the anterior cerebral artery (Fig. 2.17c) and the middle cerebral artery (Fig. 2.17d). The left and right posterior cerebral arteries originate from the basilar artery (Fig. 2.17e).
2.3.1.2 Anterior Cerebral Artery
The anterior cerebral artery (ACA) has the following main branches (Fig. 2.18):
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A1 segment (precommunicating part)
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A2 segment (postcommunicating part)
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Pericallosal artery
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Callosomarginal artery
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2.3.1.3 Middle Cerebral Artery
The middle cerebral artery (MCA) is subdivided into four segments (Fig. 2.19a):
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M1 segment (sphenoid part)
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M2 segment (insular part)
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M3 segment (opercular part)
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M4 segment (terminal part)
The main MCA branches of the left hemisphere are shown in Fig. 2.19b.
2.3.1.4 Posterior Cerebral Artery
The posterior cerebral artery is parcellated into four segments (Fig. 2.20):
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P1 segment (precommunicating part)
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P2 segment (postcommunicating part)
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P3 segment (lateral occipital artery)
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P4 segment (medial occipital artery)
2.3.1.5 Circle of Willis
The circle of Willis connects the anterior and posterior circulations. It includes the following vessels (Fig. 2.21):
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Anterior communicating artery
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Left and right posterior communicating arteries
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Part of the left and right internal carotid arteries
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Left and right A1 segments of the anterior cerebral arteries
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Left and right P1 segments of the posterior cerebral arteries
2.3.2 Venous System
2.3.2.1 Parcellation of Venous System
The main components of the venous system are (Fig. 2.22):
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Dural sinuses
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Cerebral veins
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Superficial veins
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Deep veins
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The cerebral veins empty into the dural sinuses.
2.3.2.2 Dural Sinuses
The main dural sinuses are (Fig. 2.23):
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Superior sagittal sinus
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Inferior sagittal sinus
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Straight sinus
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Left and right transverse sinuses
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Left and right sigmoid sinuses
2.3.2.3 Cerebral Veins
The main superficial cerebral veins are (Fig. 2.24):
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Frontopolar veins
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Prefrontal veins
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Frontal veins
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Parietal veins
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Occipital veins
Other important superficial veins include the superior and inferior anastomotic veins and the superficial middle cerebral vein.
The main deep cerebral veins are (Fig. 2.25):
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Great vein (of Galen)
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Left and right basal vein (of Rosenthal)
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Left and right internal cerebral veins
2.3.3 Vascular Variants
The human cerebrovasculature is highly variable and vascular variants have been extensively studied (see, e.g. [6, 10, 13, 22]). Variations exist in terms of origin, location, shape, size, course, branching patterns, as well as surrounding vessels and structures. The knowledge of cerebrovascular variants is central in diagnosis, treatment, and medical education.
Some main variants of the circle of Willis synthesised in 3D are shown in Fig. 2.26 (more 3D vascular variants are presented in [70]).
2.4 Connectional Neuroanatomy
Three types of white matter connections (or tracts, fibres, bundles, fibre pathways, fascicles) are distinguished in the cerebral hemispheres (Fig. 2.27):
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Commissural tracts
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Association tracts
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Projection tracts
In addition, three cerebellar paired peduncles, superior peduncle, middle peduncle, and inferior peduncle, connect the cerebellum to the brainstem: midbrain, pons, and medulla, respectively.
2.4.1 Commissural Tracts
The commissural tracts interconnect both hemispheres across the median plane. The main commissural tracts are (Fig. 2.28):
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Corpus callosum
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Anterior commissure
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Posterior commissure
The corpus callosum (the great commissure) is the largest commissure. Its three main parts: genu (knee), body, and splenium, connect the frontal lobes, wide areas of hemispheres, and the occipital lobes, respectively.
The anterior commissure connects the temporal lobes, while the posterior commissure links the midbrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus on both sides.
2.4.2 Association Tracts
The association tracts interconnect different cortical regions of the same cerebral hemisphere. There are two types of the association tracts:
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Short arcuate fibres that connect adjacent gyri (so-called U fibres)
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Long arcuate fibres interconnecting widely separated gyri
The main association tracts are (Fig. 2.29):
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Superior longitudinal fasciculus
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Middle longitudinal fasciculus
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Inferior longitudinal fasciculus
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Superior occipito-frontal fasciculus
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Inferior occipito-frontal fasciculus
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Cingulum
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Uncinate fasciculus
The superior longitudinal fasciculus connects the frontal lobe with the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. The inferior longitudinal fasciculus links the temporal lobe with the occipital lobe. The cingulum deep to the cingulated gyrus interconnects parts of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. The uncinate fasciculus connects the frontal lobe (the orbital gyri and motor speech area) with the temporal lobe.
2.4.3 Projection Tracts
The projection tracts connect the cortex with the subcortical structures in the diencephalon, brainstem, and spinal cord. The main projection tracts are (Fig. 2.30):
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Corticospinal (pyramidal) tract
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Corticothalamic tract including the anterior, posterior (optic), and superior thalamic radiations
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Corticobulbar tract (connecting to the brainstem)
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Corticopontine tract (projecting to the pons)
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Auditory radiations
The projection fibres located between the striatum and thalamus form the internal capsule consisting of the anterior limb (containing the corticothalamic tract), genu (comprising the corticobulbar tract), and posterior limb (containing the corticospinal tract). The fibres radiating from the internal capsule to various parts of the cerebral cortex form the corona radiata.
2.5 Recent Extensions and Future Brain Atlas Developments
From the first edition of this book, our brain atlas work has substantially been advanced in terms of atlas creation and development of atlas-based applications. The taxonomy of our brain atlases, grouped into three families, has been presented in [109]. New atlas-based solutions have been proposed for stroke (the probabilistic stroke atlas for outcome prediction [110]), neuroradiology (an atlas assistance in image interpretation in multiple situations and in communication [108]), and neurology (the 3D atlas of neurologic disorders discussed below) [113].
We have created several new editions of the 3D anatomic and reference brain atlas and extended the virtual brain to the head and neck [93,94,95,96]. The existing tissue modules (such as the cortex [101] and white matter tracts [102]) have been further validated and new tissue modules created, including the cranial nerves with brainstem nuclei [103], extracranial arteries and veins [104], head muscles and glands [105], and skull [106]. The latest, most advanced neuroanatomic atlas is entitled The Human Brain, Head and Neck in 2953 Pieces [96]. A description of its content, functionality, and usefulness is addressed in [107]. Moreover, the publisher made this atlas publically available from www.thieme.com/nowinski (and also at http://www.wieslawnowinski.com/FreeBrainAtlas). The atlas is an ideal tool to study, explore, and teach brain anatomy extended to the head and neck. The virtual model is parcellated into about 3000 3D pieces. The atlas is interactive, 3D, fully parcellated, completely labelled, advanced, detailed, accurate, reference, realistic, of high resolution, spatially consistent, user-friendly, extendable (scalable), composable (enable to compose any scene), dissectible, explorable, stereotactic, and modular. It provides a user-friendly navigator enabling real-time structure and scan manipulation, 3D labelling of surface and sectional anatomy, structure assembling and disassembling, brain virtual dissection, interaction combined with animation, quantification (distances, vessel diameters, and stereotactic coordinates), and saving the composed and labelled scenes facilitating creation of teaching materials. The reader is encouraged to download this atlas and explore the beauty of virtual brain anatomy by him-/herself.
The neuroanatomic atlas has subsequently been extended towards neurology by creating a 3D interactive atlas of neurologic disorders providing a correspondence between a brain lesion (damage) and the resulting disorder(s) [97]. We have simulated brain damage at various locations and developed a brain pathology database with focal and distributed vascular [111], cranial nerve-related [112], and regional anatomy-related [113] synthesised lesions. Each lesion has been labelled with the resulting disorder and associated signs, symptoms, and/or syndromes (and additionally linked with relevant neurology textbook materials).
Mobile versions of the anatomic and neurologic disorders atlases also have been developed [98,99,100].
Finally, celebrating my 25th anniversary of brain atlasing work and 20th anniversary of the release of my first brain atlas product [117], I published two review papers [115, 116]. In [115], I gave an overview of mathematical methods as well as computational methods and tools in brain atlasing, sharing our contribution and experience about the methods devised and tools developed to create brain atlases and develop atlas-based applications. In [116], I presented the state of the art in brain atlasing and summarised my past and present efforts; shared my experience in atlas creation, validation, and commercialisation; compared our work with the state of the art; and proposed future directions, namely, to develop a disruptive, multilevel brain atlas platform with three directions: content spanning from molecules to behaviour; variability covering structure, function, and disorders; and time across the lifespan.
2.6 Summary
The brain contains the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem, and it encases the ventricular system. The cerebrum comprises the paired cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon (with thalamus and hypothalamus), and deep grey matter nuclei, the main of them including the caudate nucleus, putamen, lateral and medial globus pallidus, hippocampus, and amygdala. The cerebral hemispheres are parcellated into the frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, and limbic lobes. The cerebellum contains the paired cerebellar hemispheres united by the midline vermis. The brainstem is subdivided into the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The ventricular system contains the paired lateral and midline third and fourth ventricles.
The cerebral vasculature comprises the arterial and venous systems. The brain is supplied by two pairs of arteries: internal carotid arteries anteriorly and vertebral arteries posteriorly. The anterior and posterior circulations are connected by the circle of Willis, from which originate three paired branches: anterior cerebral, middle cerebral, and posterior cerebral arteries. The venous system contains the dural sinuses and cerebral superficial and deep veins.
The brain is connected by the commissural, association, and projection tracts. The main commissural tracts (interconnecting both hemispheres) are the corpus callosum and anterior and posterior commissures. The major association tracts (interconnecting different regions of the same hemisphere) are superior longitudinal, middle longitudinal, inferior longitudinal, superior occipito-frontal, inferior occipito-frontal, and uncinate fascicles. The main projection tracts (connecting the cortex with the subcortical structures) contain corticospinal, corticothalamic (including optic radiation), corticobulbar, and corticopontine tracts as well as auditory radiation.
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Other Materials
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Nowinski, W.L., Qian, G., Bhanu Prakash, K.N., Volkau, I., Thirunavuukarasuu, A., Hu, Q., Ananthasubramaniam, A., Liu, J., Gupta, V., Ng, T.T., Leong, W.K., Beauchamp, N.J.: A CAD system for acute ischemic stroke image processing. Int. J. Comput. Assisted Radiol. Surg. 2(Suppl. 1), 220–222 (2007)
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Nowinski, W.L., Belov, D.: The Cerefy Neuroradiology Atlas: a Talairach-Tournoux atlas-based tool for analysis of neuroimages available over the internet. NeuroImage. 20(1), 50–57 (2003)
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Recent Brain Atlases Created (Products)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C., Qian, G.Y., Marchenko, Y., Puspitasari, F., Nowinska, N.G., Knopp, M.V.: The Human Brain in 1492 Pieces: Structure, Vasculature, and Tracts (version 1.1 for MAC). Thieme, New York (2011)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C., Qian, G.Y., Nowinska, N.G.: The Human Brain in 1969 Pieces: Structure, Vasculature, Tracts, Cranial Nerves, and Systems. Thieme, New York (2013)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C.: The Human Brain in 1969 Pieces: Structure, Vasculature, Tracts, Cranial Nerves, Systems, Head Muscles, and Glands (version 2.0). Thieme, New York (2014)
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Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C., Ngai, V.: The 3D Brain Atlas (version 1.0 for Android). Thieme, New York (2014)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C., Ngai, V.: 3D Atlas of Neurologic Disorders (version 1.0 for iPad). Thieme, New York (2013). /AppStore
Recent Extensions and Future Directions in Brain Atlasing
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C., Qian, G.Y., Nowinska, N.G.: The human brain in 1700 pieces: design and development of a three-dimensional, interactive and reference atlas. J. Neurosci. Methods. 204(1), 44–60 (2012)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C., Yang, G.L., Qian, G.Y.: Three-dimensional interactive human brain atlas of white matter tracts. Neuroinformatics. 10(1), 33–55 (2012)
Nowinski, W.L., Johnson, A., Chua, B.C., Nowinska, N.G.: Three-dimensional interactive and stereotactic atlas of cranial nerves and nuclei correlated with surface neuroanatomy, vasculature and magnetic resonance imaging. J. Neurosci. Methods. 206(2), 205–216 (2012)
Nowinski, W.L., Thaung, T.S.L., Chua, B.C., Wut Yi, S.H., Yang, Y., Urbanik, A.: Three-dimensional stereotactic atlas of the extracranial vasculature correlated with the intracranial vasculature, cranial nerves, skull and muscles. Neuroradiol. J. 28(2), 190–197 (2015)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C., Johnson, A., Qian, G., Poh, L.E., Wut Yi, S.H., Aminah, B., Nowinska, N.G.: Three-dimensional interactive and stereotactic atlas of head muscles and glands correlated with cranial nerves and surface and sectional neuroanatomy. J. Neurosci. Methods. 215(1), 12–18 (2013)
Nowinski, W.L., Thaung, T.S.L., Chua, B.C., Wut Yi, S.H., Ngai, V., Yang, Y., Chrzan, R., Urbanik, A.: Three-dimensional stereotactic atlas of the adult human skull correlated with the brain, cranial nerves and intracranial vasculature. J. Neurosci. Methods. 246, 65–74 (2015)
Nowinski, W.L.: 3D Atlas of the brain, head and neck in 2953 pieces. Neuroinformatics. 15(4), 395–400 (2017)
Nowinski, W.L.: Usefulness of brain atlases in neuroradiology: current status and future potential. Neuroradiol. J. 29(4), 260–268 (2016)
Nowinski, W.L.: Towards the holistic, reference and extendable atlas of the human brain, head and neck. Brain Inform. 2(2), 65–76 (2015)
Nowinski, W.L., Gupta, V., Qian, G.Y., Ambrosius, W., Kazmierski, R.: Population-based stroke atlas for outcome prediction: method and preliminary results for ischemic stroke from CT. PLoS One. 9(8), e102048 (2014). eCollection 2014; http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0102048
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C.: Stroke Atlas: a 3D interactive tool correlating cerebrovascular pathology with underlying neuroanatomy and resulting neurological deficits. Neuroradiol. J. 26(1), 56–65 (2013)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C.: Three-dimensional interactive atlas of cranial nerve-related disorders. Neuroradiol. J. 26(3), 263–275 (2013)
Nowinski, W.L., Chua, B.C.: Bridging neuroanatomy, neuroradiology and neurology: three-dimensional interactive atlas of neurological disorders. Neuroradiol. J. 26(3), 252–262 (2013)
Nowinski, W.L., Thaung, T.S.L.: A 3D stereotactic atlas of the adult human skull base. Brain Inform. 5(2), 1 (2018). https://rdcu.be/UOLj
Nowinski, W.L.: Computational and mathematical methods in brain atlasing. Neuroradiol. J. 30(6), 520–534 (2017)
Nowinski, W.L.: Human brain atlasing: past, present and future. Neuroradiol. J. 30(6), 504–519 (2017)
Krejza, J.: Professor Wieslaw Nowinski: 25 years of contribution to the development of digital brain atlases. Neuroradiol. J. 30(6), 501–503 (2017). (editorial)
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The brain atlas development work was funded by A*STAR, Singapore.
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Nowinski, W.L. (2019). Human Brain Anatomy in 3D. In: Miller, K. (eds) Biomechanics of the Brain. Biological and Medical Physics, Biomedical Engineering. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04996-6_2
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