Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hormones, Breast Disorders, and Lactation

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Female Reproductive Dysfunction

Part of the book series: Endocrinology ((ENDOCR))

  • 244 Accesses

Abstract

The breast is an organ, equal and symmetrical, of the human body. It develops, grows, acquires functions, and involutes according to the stage of life: puberty, pregnancy, lactation, and menopause. These modifications are induced by the hormonal variations that a woman experiences during the course of her life. Besides the normal evolution of the breast, hormones are responsible of many breast disorders, be them benign or malignant.

The term benign breast disease is used to describe a wide variety of mammary clinical entities. Benign breast diseases are often referred to as para-physiological conditions in normal breast development and their prevalence peaks during the first four decades of the woman’s life. Hormonal dysregulations are thought to play a key role in the development of such disorders. Similarly, endogenous and exogenous hormonal modifications are listed as major risk factors for the development of breast malignancies: the link between sex hormones and breast tumors has long been known and confirmed in experimental biological models and epidemiological observations. The incidence curve of breast cancer grows with advancing age but plateaus over the years after menopause, in parallel with the cessation of ovarian hormone production. At this stage of life, concerns have been raised over the possible deleterious effect of hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) on breast benign diseases and breast cancer risk since the results of the WHI were published in 2001. The same issues are reported in literature for the previous consumption of combined oral contraceptives (OCs). Beginning from normal breast development, physiology, and pathology, the effect of OCs and HRT on breast benign disease and on the risk of breast cancer will be the subject of this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson GL, Chlebowski RT, Aragaki AK, Kuller LH, Manson JE, Gass M, Bluhm E, Connelly S, Hubbell FA, Lane D, Martin L, Ockene J, Rohan T, Schenken R, Wactawski-Wende J. Conjugated equine oestrogen and breast cancer incidence and mortality in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: extended follow-up of the Women’s Health Initiative randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2012a;13(5):476–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson GL, Chlebowski RT, Aragaki AK, Kuller LH, Manson JE, Gass M, et al. Conjugated equine oestrogen and breast cancer incidence and mortality in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: extended follow-up of the Women’s Health Initiative randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2012b;13(5):476–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baumgärtner AK, Häusler A, Seifert-Klauss V, Schuster T, Schwarz-Boeger U, Kiechle M. Breast cancer after hormone replacement therapy--does prognosis differ in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women? Breast. 2011;20(5):448–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beral V. Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet. 2003;362:419.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beral V, Calle EE, Heath CW, Coates RJ, Liff JM, Franceschi S, Talamini R, Košmelj K, Primic-Žakelj M, Ravnihar B, Stare J, Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Lancet. 1997;350(9084):1047–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beral V, Reeves G, Bull D, Green J. Breast cancer risk in relation to the interval between menopause and starting hormone therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103(4):296–305.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bernardi S, Londero AP, Bertozzi S, Driul L, Marchesoni D, Petri R. Breast-feeding and benign breast disease. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2012;32(1):58–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blair CK, Wiggins CL, Nibbe AM, Storlie CB, Prossnitz ER, Royce M, et al. Obesity and survival among a cohort of breast cancer patients is partially mediated by tumor characteristics. NPJ Breast Cancer. 2019;5:33.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Charreau I, Plu-Bureau G, Bachelot A, Contesso G, Guinebretiére JM, Lê MG. Oral contraceptive use and risk of benign breast disease in a French case-control study of young women. Eur J Cancer Prev. 1993;2(2):147–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL. Changing concepts: menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2012;104(7):517–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53297 women with breast cancer and 100239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet. 1996;347:1713–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Familial breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 52 epidemiological studies including 58,209 women with breast cancer and 101,986 women without the disease. Lancet. 2001;358(9291):1389–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coopey SB, Mazzola E, Buckley JM, et al. The role of chemoprevention in modifying the risk of breast cancer in women with atypical breast lesions. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2012;136:627–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cordina-Duverger E, Truong T, Anger A, Sanchez M, Arveux P, Kerbrat P, et al. Risk of breast cancer by type of menopausal hormone therapy: a case-control study among post-menopausal women in France. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e78016.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis KM, Tepper NK, Jatlaoui TC, Berry-Bibee E, Horton LG, Zapata LB, et al. US medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016a;65:1–103.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis KM, Jatlaoui TC, Tepper NK, Zapata LB, Horton LG, Jamieson DJ, et al. US selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016b;65:1–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Degnim AC, Visscher DW, Berman HK, et al. Stratification of breast cancer risk in women with atypia: a Mayo Cohort Study. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:2671–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Del Favero C, Rossini G, Tufarulo L, Ciancio ML, Sopransi M, Martegani A, Borghi C, Campi R, Fugazzola C. Mammography changes associated with hormone replacement therapy in post-menopausal patients. Radiol Med. 1997;93(3):210–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dupont WD, Page DL. Risk factors for breast cancer in women with proliferative breast disease. N Engl J Med. 1985;312:146.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisen A, Lubinski J, Gronwald J, Moller P, Lynch HT, Klijn J, et al. Hormone therapy and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008;100(19):1361–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eskandari A, Alipour S. Hormone replacement therapy and breast diseases: a matter of concern for the gynecologist. Arch Breast Cancer. 2019;6:113–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fasal E, Paffenbarger RS Jr. Oral contraceptives as related to cancer and benign lesions of the breast. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1975;55(4):767–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelde DT, Kitchen PR, Hayes PR, McKinlay MR, Henderson MA. Symptomatic benign breast disease and hormone replacement therapy. Breast. 2001;10(2):127–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedenreich C, Bryant H, Alexander F, Hugh J, Danyluk J, Page D. Risk factors for benign proliferative breast disease. Int J Epidemiol. 2000;29(4):637–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaffield ME, Culwell KR, Ravi A. Oral contraceptives and family history of breast cancer. Contraception. 2009;80:372–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gayet A, Estève J, Séradour B, Piana L, Jacquemier J. Does hormone replacement therapy increase the frequency of breast atypical hyperplasia in postmenopausal women? Results from the Bouches du Rhone district screening campaign. Eur J Cancer. 2003;39(12):1738–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gierisch JM, Coeytaux RR, Urrutia RP, Havrilesky LJ, Moorman PG, Lowery WJ, et al. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast, cervical, colorectal, and endometrial cancers: a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2013;22(11):1931–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grandi G, Toss A, Cagnacci A, Marcheselli L, Pavesi S, Facchinetti F, et al. Combined hormonal contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer in a population of women with a family history. Clin Breast Cancer. 2018;18(1):e15–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guray M, Sahin AA. Benign breast diseases: classification, diagnosis, and management. Oncologist. 2006;11:435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hannaford PC, Selvaraj S, Elliott AM, Angus V, Iversen L, Lee AJ. Cancer risk among users of oral contraceptives: cohort data from the Royal College of General Practitioner’s oral contraception study. BMJ. 2007;335(7621):651.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann LC, Degnim AC, Santen RJ, Dupont WD, Ghosh K. Atypical hyperplasia of the breast--risk assessment and management options. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(1):78–89.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey JA. Use and cost of breast imaging for postmenopausal women undergoing hormone replacement therapy. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1999;172(6):1615–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Malspeis S, Spiegelman D, Chen W, et al. Oral contraceptive use and breast cancer: a prospective study of young women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2010;19(10):2496–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iodice S, Barile M, Rotmensz N, et al. Oral contraceptive use and breast or ovarian cancer risk in BRCA1/2 carriers: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46:2275–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iversen L, Sivasubramaniam S, Lee AJ, et al. Lifetime cancer risk and combined oral contraceptives: the Royal College of General Practitioners’ Oral Contraception Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2017;216(6):580.e1–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaaks R, Rinaldi S, Key TJ, Berrino F, Peeters PHM, Biessy C, et al. Postmenopausal serum androgens, oestrogens and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2005;12(4):1071–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaaks R, Tikk K, Sookthai D, Schock H, Johnson T, Tjønneland A, et al. Premenopausal serum sex hormone levels in relation to breast cancer risk, overall and by hormone receptor status – results from the EPIC cohort. Int J Cancer. 2014;134(8):1947–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahlenborn C, Modugno F, Potter DM, Severs WB. Oral contraceptive use as a risk factor for premenopausal breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2006;81(10):1290–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King MC, Marks JH, Mandell JB, New York Breast Cancer Study Group. Breast and ovarian cancer risks due to inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2. Science. 2003;302:643–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kotsopoulos J, Lubinski J, Moller P, et al. Timing of oral contraceptive use and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2014;143:579–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kotsopoulos J, Huzarski T, Gronwald J, Moller P, Lynch HT, Neuhausen SL, et al. Hormone replacement therapy after menopause and risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 mutation carriers: a case-control study. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2016;155(2):365–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manson JE, Chlebowski RT, Stefanick ML, Aragaki AK, Rossouw JE, Prentice RL, et al. The Women’s Health Initiative hormone therapy trials: update and overview of health outcomes during the intervention and post-stopping phases. JAMA. 2013;310(13):1353–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, Folger SG, Mandel MG, Daling JR, Bernstein L, Malone KE, Ursin G, Strom BL, Norman SA, Wingo PA, Burkman RT, Berlin JA, Simon MS, Spirtas R, Weiss LK. Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:2025–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Menes TS, Kerlikowske K, Jaffer S, Seger D, Miglioretti DL. Rates of atypical ductal hyperplasia have declined with less use of postmenopausal hormone treatment: findings from the Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2009;18(11):2822–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Menon U, Karpinskyj C, Gentry-Maharaj A. Ovarian cancer prevention and screening. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(5):909–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minami Y, Ohuchi N, Taeda Y, Fukao A, Hisamichi S. Risk factors for benign breast disease according to histopathological type: comparisons with risk factors for breast cancer. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1998;89(2):116–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moorman PG, Havrilesky LJ, Gierisch JM, et al. Oral contraceptives and risk of ovarian cancer and breast cancer among high-risk women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:4188–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mørch LS, Skovlund CW, Hannaford PC, Iversen L, Fielding S, Lidegaard Ø. Contemporary hormonal contraception and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2017;377(23):2228–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomer LM, Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, Longnecker MP, Greenberg ER. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer by histologic type. Int J Cancer. 2003;106:961–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozanne EM, Wittenberg E, Garber JE, Weeks JC. Breast cancer prevention: patient decision making and risk communication in the high risk setting. Breast J. 2010;16(1):38–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pickar JH, Boucher M, Morgenstern D. Tissue selective estrogen complex (TSEC): a review. Menopause. 2018;25(9):1033–45.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Primic-Žakelj M, Košmelj K. Menarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(11):1141–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rebbeck TR, Friebel T, Wagner T, Lynch HT, Garber JE, Daly MB, et al. Effect of short-term hormone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk reduction after bilateral prophylactic oophorectomy in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: the PROSE Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(31):7804–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rohan TE, Miller AB. A cohort study of oral contraceptive use and risk of benign breast disease. Int J Cancer. 1999;82(2):191–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288(3):321–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders ME, Page DL, Simpson JF, Schuyler PA, Dale Plummer W, Dupont WD. Interdependence of radial scar and proliferative disease with respect to invasive breast carcinoma risk in patients with benign breast biopsies. Cancer. 2006;106(7):1453–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sismondi P, Biglia N, Ponzone R, Ambroggio S. Hormone replacement therapy, insulin-like growth factor I and breast cancer. In: Genazzani AR, editor. Hormone replacement therapy and cancer. The current status of research and practice. Boca Raton: The Parthenon Publishing Group; 2002. p. 78–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Technical paper No. 2017–12 – Who collects what on the current use of contraception? A review of survey data available for the estimation of contraceptive prevalence.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vessey M, Yeates D. Oral contraceptives and benign breast disease: an update of findings in a large cohort study. Contraception. 2007;76(6):418–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Visvanathan K, Chlebowski RT, Hurley P, Col NF, Ropka M, Collyar D, Morrow M, Runowicz C, Pritchard KI, Hagerty K, Arun B, Garber J, Vogel VG, Wade JL, Brown P, Cuzick J, Kramer BS, Lippman SM, American Society of Clinical Oncology. American society of clinical oncology clinical practice guideline update on the use of pharmacologic interventions including tamoxifen, raloxifene, and aromatase inhibition for breast cancer risk reduction. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(19):3235–58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vorherr H. Fibrocystic breast disease: pathophysiology, pathomorphology, clinical picture, and management. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986;154:161–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waters EA, McNeel TS, Stevens WM, Freedman AN. Use of tamoxifen and raloxifene for breast cancer chemoprevention in 2010. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2012;134(2):875–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yaghjyan L, Tamimi RM, Bertrand KA, Scott CG, Jensen MR, Pankratz VS, et al. Interaction of mammographic breast density with menopausal status and postmenopausal hormone use in relation to the risk of aggressive breast cancer subtypes. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2017;165(2):421–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yu JH, Kim MJ, Cho H, Liu HJ, Han SJ, Ahn TG. Breast diseases during pregnancy and lactation. Obstet Gynecol Sci. 2013;56(3):143–59.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu H, Lei X, Feng J, Wang Y. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 2012;17(6):402–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Umberto I – Mauriziano Hospital, Turin, Italy

    Nicoletta Biglia, Valentina Elisabetta Bounous, Marta D’Alonzo, Michela Villa & Andrea Villasco

  2. Gynaecology and Obstetrics, University of Turin School of Medicine, Turin, Italy

    Nicoletta Biglia

Authors
  1. Nicoletta Biglia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Valentina Elisabetta Bounous
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marta D’Alonzo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michela Villa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Andrea Villasco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicoletta Biglia .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Deaprtment of Obstatrics and Gynecology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Caregg, Firenze, Italy

    Felice Petraglia

  2. Obstetrics and Gynecology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Bart CJM Fauser

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Biglia, N., Bounous, V.E., D’Alonzo, M., Villa, M., Villasco, A. (2020). Hormones, Breast Disorders, and Lactation. In: Petraglia, F., Fauser, B. (eds) Female Reproductive Dysfunction . Endocrinology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03594-5_22-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03594-5_22-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-03594-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-03594-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation