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1 Foundational Themes

Defining and scoping space security is probably the single most important issue for any dialogue about this topic. Traditionally space security was primarily defined in bipolar terms as part of the strategic balance between the United States and the Soviet Union, and it was focused on military and environmental aspects of accessing and using space. Chapter 2, “Defining Space Security” chapter by Michael Sheehan explains how this traditional definition has been expanded to include a broader perspective on security that emphasizes the use of space for security and defense, the security of assets in space against natural and man-made threats, as well as security from threats originating in space. Broadening the scope of space security to include a growing number of significant space actors and emphasize the increasing importance of commercial interests has advantages, but also carries certain risks, including difficulties in addressing these issues in comprehensive yet discreet ways.

Governance and theoretical issues form other foundational aspects of space security. Effective governance is needed for humanity to derive more benefits from space; space governance also seeks to ensure space is used in stable and sustainable ways. Eligar Sadeh identifies two key obstacles to more enlightened space governance: difficulties in attaining collective action in relation to the commons of space and problems with developing shared understanding about strategic stability and advancing strategic assurance for sustainable uses of space as a shared strategic goal. Max Mutschler’s chapter describes how international relations theory can be used to explain various patterns of security cooperation in space and illuminates why there have been only limited successes thus far in achieving space security cooperation: Neorealism explains this lack of cooperation with the difficulties to achieve balanced gains; neoinstitutionalism sees the establishment of effective rules and mechanisms to verify the compliance of states as a main hurdle; and from a Constructivist/Liberal perspective the main problem lies in the dominant beliefs about the value of unilateral space policies. More broadly, my chapter asserts that spacepower theory can describe, explain, and predict how individuals, groups, and states can best derive utility, balance investments, and reduce risks in their interactions with the cosmos. Such foundational theory should be more fully developed and become a source for critical insights on finding better ways to generate wealth in space, making trade-offs between space investments and other important goals, reordering terrestrial security dynamics as space becomes increasingly militarized and potentially weaponized, and seizing exploration and survival opportunities that only space can provide.

Chapters exploring the laws of war for space and the role of space in deterrence complete the foundational part of Section One. Professor Steven Freeland explains how regulation of space is embedded in international law and explicates the major themes of the Outer Space Treaty (OST), the main source of space law. As technology advances, space has been increasingly used during the course of armed conflict, notwithstanding the “peaceful purposes” provisions of the OST. Reconciling these seemingly incompatible concepts and developments is difficult and requires an understanding of how and to what extent the international law principles of jus in bello – international humanitarian law – apply to the conduct of these activities. Freeland describes how the rising number of “dual-use” satellites further complicates matters and asserts that there is a growing need to reach consensus on additional legal regulation for armed conflict that may involve use of space capabilities. Ambassador Roger Harrison asserts that whether or not weapons are actually deployed in space, the era in which satellites could operate without potential threat is over. He examines trends that could be encouraged and actions that should be taken to reduce the possibility of space becoming a theater, or a catalyst, for hostilities. He concludes that prospects for strengthening deterrence may not depend so much on state activity as on the nature of the space environment as well as on leadership by commercial space operators.

2 International Space Security Focus Areas

Responsive space is a recent catchphrase referring to aspirations for space capabilities to support a wide range of mission areas in flexible ways, become more affordable, and be developed and employed more quickly. Nina-Louisa Remuss explores security-related dimensions of responsive space and examines how the well-known approach developed by the US Department of Defense can inform a European path toward improving responsive space capabilities. Dario Sgobbi and his coauthors examine the strong interrelationships between space and cyber security. Although many aspects of space and, especially, cyber security must be far better developed, the authors assert that using systems engineering concepts and methodologies is key to tackling challenges in both these fields simultaneously and to achieving space systems that are truly cyber secure.

Despite increased emphasis over the past 20 years on critical infrastructure protection as an essential foundation for ensuring the safety and security of citizens and the functioning of states, Markus Hesse and Marcus Hornung find that too often critical space infrastructure is overlooked. For example, Global Positioning System timing signals currently provide the “heartbeat” that synchronizes all global telecommunications networks, yet there is a lack of appreciation for this dependency and underdeveloped policies to ensure protection of this critical space infrastructure. As space infrastructure grows in importance, it is imperative that the United States, European Union, and others find better ways to develop these needed policies. Space safety is necessary for the sustainable development of space yet, as Joe Pelton and his coauthors describe, safety considerations are too often an afterthought for space security issues. Without improved space safety practices and standards from launch, to on-orbit operations, to reentry, billions of dollars of space assets, many astronaut lives, and even people on Earth could all be increasingly in peril. A related topic of growing importance is the concept of space traffic management. William Ailor’s chapter begins by providing an overview of the evolution of the near-Earth space environment, discussing the current situation, and projecting how future developments such as the growing space debris population and active debris removal will affect that environment. Just as the growth in air travel led to air traffic management, assuring that future space systems will have minimal interference to their operations requires a system to warn operators of potential collisions and other hazards: a space traffic management system.

Space sustainability is another recent catchphrase that refers to a set of issues relating to carrying out space activities safely and without interference as well as concerns about ensuring continuity of benefits derived on Earth from space activities. Peter Martinez, as a long-time international space policy expert, is in an ideal position to review the role of the various relevant United Nations (UN) entities in ensuring space sustainability and provide a detailed review of the Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities within the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN COPUOS). In addition, his chapter discusses the relationship of the work in UN COPUOS with related work being done in the Conference on Disarmament, the UN Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) on Transparency- and Confidence-Building Measures (TCBMs) in Outer Space Activities, and the initiative by the European Union to propose a draft international Code of Conduct for outer space activities. Ulrike Bohlmann explains how the Cold War drove both innovation in space technology and imposition of controls on the export of these technologies. Balancing national security and commercial interests has been and remains difficult due to the Janus-faced, “dual-use” nature of space technology, serving scientific and commercial interests on the one hand and strategic, defense-related objectives on the other. Finally, Jana Robinson, from her perch with the European External Action Service, describes TCBMs as traditional tools of diplomacy and international relations that can be applied to space activities. She reviews the increasing demand for TCBMs, focuses on the multilateral dimension of TCBMs, and overviews the main space TCBM-related efforts to date, including the more recent ones being undertaken in the UN framework and by the European Union.

3 Conclusions

This overview of Section One of the Handbook of Space Security provides a comprehensive introduction to major issues and themes that shape humanity’s dialogue about space security. The 14 chapters in Section One include foundational discussions about definitional, governance, theoretical, legal, and deterrence themes as well as more focused discussions about responsive space, cyber security, critical infrastructure, safety, traffic management, sustainability, export controls, and transparency- and confidence-building measures. These chapters provide a comprehensive foundation for the more detailed and focused discussions of space security themes and issues in the remainder of the Handbook of Space Security.