Abstract
When an external parameter such as an electric field or an optical generation rate is changed as a function of time, carriers in the semiconductor respond on this disturbance by a redistribution controlled by relaxation times. Relaxation proceeds by elastic or inelastic scattering with carriers, phonons, defects, or spin momenta, and respective time constants range from femtoseconds to years.
Relaxation of injected carriers is given by the carrier lifetime and related to their diffusion or drift length. Nonthermal excess energy of hot carriers is transferred to the lattice mostly by optical phonons. At high carrier density also plasmons, and at high carrier-generation rates and low lattice temperature, condensation into electron-hole droplets with evaporation into excitons are involved. Optical phonons, excited by fast carriers or by an IR light pulse, relax their momenta by elastic scattering with phonons in the same branch, or by a decay into acoustical phonons.
Relaxation of excitons created by nonresonant optical excitation proceeds by inelastic scattering, eventually yielding radiative recombination for momenta near the zone center. The rise time in the luminescence after pulse excitation is controlled by the balance to uncorrelated electron-hole pairs. Resonantly excited excitons show a fast rise in the coherent regime and an exponential decay with an observed time constant depending on excitation density.
Carrier spin and orbital momenta are coherently aligned by excitation with polarized light. The subsequent relaxation can be detected by the degree of polarization of the radiative recombination. Holes in semiconductors with degenerate valence bands at the zone center have short spin-relaxation times in the sub-ps range; lifting this degeneracy slows relaxation down. Electrons have usually longer spin-relaxation times, limited by various mechanisms. In an exciton with weak electron-hole interaction the spin-relaxation time of the sequential spin flip of electron and hole is given by the slower particle, while at stronger interaction the faster simultaneous spin flip occurs.
Karl W. Böer: deceased.
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Notes
- 1.
The dielectric relaxation time takes polarization effects in the current after changing the bias into account. In absence of traps this quantity is given by τσ = εε0/σ. Simple polarization effects have a very short time constant; with σ in the 10−4 to 10+2 Ω−1 cm−1 range for typical semiconductors, τσ is on the order of 10−8 to 10−14 s.
- 2.
When light of sufficient energy is absorbed in a semiconductor, free carriers or excitons are produced; this reduces the bond strength of the lattice atoms from which ionization took place and changes related lattice parameters (i.e., elastic stiffness). The changes observed in mechanical and thermal properties are small, since only a very small fraction of the bonds are involved.
- 3.
Modification of the simple model with parabolic minibands, infinite potential steps, nondegenerate electrons, nonscreening to include degeneracy (insignificant up to 2D densities of 1012 cm−2), slab modes (small effect, see Shah et al. 1985), plasma effects, and screening (less than 40% influence, see Das Sarma and Mason 1985) has shown little effect on the energy transfer.
- 4.
TO phonons can also interact with electrons and are coupled through their deformation potential. They are, however, forbidden to do so with carriers in s-like states (Wiley 1975); such forbidden transitions have a factor of only 3 reduced probability, and are important for holes.
- 5.
The probability of finding an impurity within the volume of the exciton is proportional to the number of unit cells in the excitonic volume (aX/a)3. If impurities are located in the volume of excitons, only bound-exciton recombination is observed. For experiments with GaAs high-purity thick epitaxial layers are used with a residual impurity concentration on the order of only 1012 cm−3, additionally clad by AlGaAs barriers to prevent outdiffusion and surface recombination of optically excited excitons.
- 6.
QW samples with rough interfaces exhibit a large Stokes shift due to fluctuation in the well width. Exciton relaxation to K∥= 0 is then accompanied by the relaxation of excitons from narrow well regions to regions of larger well width. Luminescence intensity, energy, and shape consequently vary during relaxation in a way depending on the particular sample.
- 7.
In this study the THz radiation was generated from a part of the pump pulse by optical rectification (Sect. 3.1.3 of Chap. 10, “Interaction of Light With Solids”) in a ZnTe crystal.
- 8.
Linearly polarized photons are a superposition of these two states.
- 9.
For bulk GaAs a spin-relaxation time of 110 fs was measured for heavy holes (Hilton and Tang 2002).
- 10.
The Larmor frequency is equivalent to the cyclotron frequency for free electrons, with ωc = (2/g)μL and g as the Landé factor (g factor), which is given for isolated atoms by Eq. 4 of Chap. 9, “Magnetic Semiconductors”; for electrons in a semiconductor the g factor is influenced by the spin-orbit splitting of the valence band, and can have substantially different values – see in Chap. 25, “Carriers in Magnetic Fields and Temperature Gradients”, Sect. 2.2 and Eq. 53.
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Böer, K.W., Pohl, U.W. (2023). Dynamic Processes. In: Semiconductor Physics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18286-0_32
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