Ethnobotany of the Himalayas: The Hindukush and Karakoram

Abstract

The Hindukush is an 800-kilometre-long mountain range that stretches through Afghanistan, from its centre to Northern Pakistan and into Tajikistan. The range forms the western section of the Hindukush Himalayan Region (HKH) and is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram and the Himalayas. The three regions meet in Pakistan (Fig. 1).

The Regions

The Hindukush is an 800-kilometre-long mountain range that stretches through Afghanistan, from its centre to Northern Pakistan and into Tajikistan. The range forms the western section of the Hindukush Himalayan Region (HKH) and is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram and the Himalayas. The three regions meet in Pakistan (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

Meeting pint of Hindukush, Karakoram and Himalaya, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south. The range has numerous high snow-capped peaks, with the highest point being Tirich Mir or Terichmir at 7708 m in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. To the north, near its northeastern end, the Hindukush buttresses the Pamir Mountains near the point where the borders of China, Pakistan and Afghanistan meet, after which it runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan near their border. The eastern end of the Hindukush in the north merges with the Karakoram Range. Towards its southern end, it connects with the Spin Ghar Range near the Kabul River. The Hindukush range region was a historically significant centre of Buddhism with sites such as the Bamiyan Buddhas. It remained a stronghold of polytheistic faiths until the nineteenth century. The Hindukush range has been the passageway during the invasions of the Indian subcontinent (Anderson et al. 2020). The region carries many snow-capped peaks, mountain lakes and high passes (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Fig. 2

Rakaposhi Summit, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 3

Borith Lake, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 4

Khaplu Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 5

Khunjerab Pass, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

The Karakoram is a mountain range spanning the borders of India, Pakistan and China with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan; its highest 15 mountains are all based in Pakistan. It begins in the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan) in the west, encompasses the majority of Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan), and extends into Ladakh (India) and the disputed Aksai Chin region controlled by China. It is the second highest mountain range in the world and part of the complex of ranges including the Pamir Mountains, the Hindukush and the Himalayan Mountains. The Karakoram has eight summits over 7500 m in height, with four of them exceeding 8000 m, including K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8611 m. The range is about 500 km in length and is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km rank as the world’s second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. The Karakoram is bounded on the east by the Aksai Chin plateau, on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau and on the north by the river valleys of the Yarkand and Karakash rivers beyond which lie the Kunlun Mountains. At the northwest corner are the Pamir Mountains. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed, west to east, by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalaya range proper. These rivers flow northwest before making an abrupt turn southwestwards towards the plains of Pakistan. Roughly in the middle of the Karakoram range is the Karakoram Pass, which was part of a historic trade route between Ladakh and Yarkand but now inactive (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).

Fig. 6

Soog Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 7

Deosai National Park, Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 8

Gunji Roundu Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 9

Nagar Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 10

Badhowai Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

There is great heterogeneity of features from south to north and west to east in relation to precipitation, vegetation and human livelihoods. This variability defies making easy generalizations about the region (Sharma et al. 2019).

Geography

The Hindukush region is the westernmost extension of the Pamir and the Himalayas. It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south. The range has numerous high snow-capped peaks, with the highest point being Tirich Mir or Terichmir at 7708 m in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. To the north, near its northeastern end, the Hindukush buttresses the Pamir Mountains near the point where the borders of China, Pakistan and Afghanistan meet, after which it runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan near their border. The eastern end of the Hindukush in the north merges with the Karakoram Range. Towards its southern end, it connects with the Spin Ghar Range near the Kabul River. Numerous high passes transect the mountains, forming a strategically important network for the transit of caravans. The most important mountain pass in Afghanistan is the Salang Pass (Kotal-e Salang) (3878 m) north of Kabul, which links southern Afghanistan to northern Afghanistan. The range has several other passes in Afghanistan, the lowest of which is the southern Shibar Pass (2700 m) where the Hindukush range terminates. The Hindukush from the boundary between the Indus watershed in South Asia and Amu Darya watershed in Central Asia Melt water from snow and ice feeds major river systems in Central Asia: the Amu Darya, the Helmand River and the Kabul River. Smaller rivers with headwaters in the range include the Khash, the Farah and the Arashkan (Harut) rivers. The basins of these rivers serve the ecology and economy of the region, but the water flow in these rivers greatly fluctuate, and reliance on these has been a historical problem with extended droughts being commonplace. The eastern end of the range, with the highest peaks and high snow accumulation, allows to long-term water storage.

Climate

Hindukush

The climate setting of the eastern Hindukush is characterized by the transitional position between the humid monsoon regime along the southern declivity of the Himalayas and the semiarid winter-rain conditions of Southwest Asia and arid Central Asia. A steep south-north gradient of decreasing annual precipitation, which characterizes the mountain belts of northern Pakistan is modified by the orographic structure and seasonally alternating circulation systems. The horizontal differentiation is overlaid by pronounced vertical climatic gradients, which range from the arid valley floors to humid nival climates within a short distance. Southern Chitral receives higher amounts of summer rainfall from monsoonal depressions. Central and northern Chitral show a more arid regime that is influenced by winter precipitation from western disturbances (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Karakoram

In the last ice age, a connected series of glaciers stretched from western Tibet to Nanga Parbat and from the Tarim Basin to the Gilgit District. To the south, the Indus glacier was the main valley glacier, which flowed 120 km down from Nanga Parbat massif to 870 m elevation. In the north, the Karakoram glaciers joined those from the Kunlun Mountains and flowed down to 2000 m in the Tarim Basin. While the current valley glaciers in the Karakoram reach a maximum length of 76 km, several of the ice age valley glacier branches and main valley glaciers had lengths up to 700 km. During the ice age, the glacier snowline was about 1300 m lower than today. Physical factors are, to a high degree, varied over the region because of extreme differences in altitude, exposition and geomorphological structure. The climate generally is strongly continental and extremely arid. Only in the highest altitudes can cold subhumid conditions be expected. The climate diagrams of Kashgar (Western Tarim Basin) and Geer (W Tibet) and low amount of precipitation (about 60 mm annually at the altitude of 4300 m) and not representative of the highest elevations. A rapid increase of humidity is obvious above the altitude of about 4400 m in the central N slope of the Karakoram. The high amount of radiation causes extreme annual, diurnal and exposition-governed temperature changes. Aspect and exposition are important factors which regulate evaporation. The N slopes of Kunlun Shan and Aghil Shan are moister and hold a much more varied vegetation than the S slopes. Not a single species was found growing on a S slope exclusively. Lithophytic lichens are almost entirely confined to N-facing rocks of the alpine and sub-nival belts where they can reach high species diversities. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss micro-climatical features of the area, but these factors control the altitudinal and latitudinal distribution of vegetation types and plant species (Dickoré 1991).

In the past the Hindukush-Karakoram climate has changed significantly, and in the near future, it will change more dramatically (Krishnan et al. 2019). The region experienced a time of climate warming from 1901 to 1940, from 1940 to 1970 was a layer of cooling, and again from 1970 up to present a layer of warming. Annual mean surface air temperature has pointedly risen in the HHK from 1901 to 2014, at 0.10 °C/decade rate, while the rate of warming is 0.2 °C/decade over the last 50 years. It is predicted that the region will experience warming 1.7–2.4 °C in the near future term (2036–2065). In the near future, it is predicted that monsoon precipitation would increase from 4% to 12% and in the long term from 4% to 25%. In the Karakoram the winter precipitation is predicted to increase from 7% to 15%, but in the central Himalaya, it is predicted that it will decline slightly (Krishnan et al. 2019). On the spatial pattern of temperatures across different geographic regions of the topographic variations, the annual season’s cycle and weather patterns variability have strong controls. In the southern foothill, the average winter and summer temperatures are between 18 °C and 30 °C, while in the middle Himalayan areas have average summer temperatures from 15 °C to 25 °C, and in winters it is very cold. The winter temperature is below the freezing point in the areas where elevation is above 4800 m, and these areas receive precipitation mainly on snow form largely in the form of snow. In the upper Indus Basin of Pakistan, the mean end-of-summer regional snow line altitude (SLA) zones range from 3000 to 5000 m. The elevated Karakoram records of observed surface temperature from Pakistani stations indicate that the average maximum temperature during July is about 20 °C and in February the average minimum temperature is about −3 °C (Krishnan et al. 2019).

Geology

Geologically, the area is rooted in the formation of a subcontinent from a region of Gondwana that drifted away from East Africa about 160 million years ago, around the Middle Jurassic period. The Indian subcontinent, Australia and islands of the Indian Ocean rifted further, drifting northeastwards, with the Indian subcontinent colliding with the Eurasian Plate nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. This collision created the Himalayas, including the Hindukush. The Hindukush is a part of the young Eurasian mountain range, consisting of metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss and marble, as well as of intrusives such as granite and diorite of different age and size. The northern regions of the Hindukush witness Himalayan winter and have glaciers, while its southeastern end witnesses the fringe of Indian subcontinent summer monsoons. The Hindukush range remains geologically active and is still rising – it is prone to earthquakes. Ancient mines producing lapis lazuli are found in Kowkcheh Valley, while gem-grade emeralds are found north of Kabul in the valley of the Panjshir River and some of its tributaries. The West Hindukush mountains have been the source of finest lapis lazuli for thousands of years.

The principal mountain ranges (Kunlun Shan, Aghil Shan, Central Karakoram) contain large plutonic, mainly granite outcrops. Sediments of the ancient Tethys from almost all geological epochs and metamorphites are equally and widely distributed. Slightly metamorphized sediments are even preserved in the innermost mountain range. Large outcrops of siliceous slates in the Kunlun Shan and Yarkand valley (mainly Permian) and in the Aghil Shan (Carboniferous) often make unstable scree slopes. Locally, as by the main fault line between the Kunlun and the Karakoram mountains (Aghil Gorge, 3880 m), hard bedrock of quartzite and other metamorphites provide better conditions for a richer flora. The summit pyramid of K2 itself (above the upper limit of vegetation) consists of an extremely hard and heavy, fine-grained striate gneiss. Limestone is especially apparent in the Aghil Shan, where there are calcareous outcrops ranging from Carboniferous to Jurassic, towered by huge dolomite cliffs. These form the complete mountain range west of the Aghil Pass of more than 2 km in height. This special geological situation (the better water supply on the foot of these cliffs) might be responsible for a comparatively rich flora noted on the N side of Aghil pass. Smaller calcareous outcrops in the subalpine belt of the Shaksgam and Muztagh valleys (mainly Carboniferous) and other Paleozoic limestone areas of the Kunlun foothills apparently have no special floras (Dickoré 1991).

Extensive loess accumulations almost cover the Kunlun foothills totally and are to a lesser extent also found in the N slope of Kunlun Shan up to 4400 m, south of the Kunlun Shan main ridge; loess is entirely wanting (Dickoré 1991).

Soils generally are poorly developed. Even in the lower altitudes, hardly any horizons are to be distinguished. Dominating soil types are Yermosols (desert soils of lower altitudes), Lithosols, and Gelosols (high altitudes). Solonchaks locally occur by rivers. Notable accumulations of humus (rarely more than 2–5 cm) were found only in the higher alpine belt under cushions of Sibbaldia tetrandra and under spots of alpine turf (Stipa concinna). Fen peat (Carex, Kobresia) is restricted to very local situations by springs and flushes. A more or less pronounced salinization is evident almost everywhere below of the alpine belt. Soda efflorescences are frequent up to about 4200 m (Dickoré 1991).

Vegetation and Flora

The Hindukush-Karakoram forms an ecotone zone which delimits the Irano-Turanian, Sino-Himalayan and Central Asiatic floristic regions. The northern boundary of West Himalayan montane coniferous forests runs through southern Chitral, whereas northern Chitral and the inner valley floors are noticeably treeless (Khan et al. 2013). The subalpine and alpine belts are predominately covered by thorn-cushion and dwarf-scrub vegetation, which contains many Irano-Turanian and Pamirean floristic elements (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The plant species provide a wealth of beneficial products that contribute significantly to the quality of life of the local inhabitants (Ali and Qaiser 2009). The area carries six conifer species Cedrus deodara, Pinus gerardiana, Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana and Juniperus excelsa and dominant broad-leaf species Betula utilis, Quercus baloot and Quercus dilatata (Schickhoff 2005). Among the conifers, Cedrus deodara is Pakistan’s national tree, provides excellent quality timber and has a great national economic importance. As a product of former and recent conditions, the species-poor flora of the region is an essentially Holarctic-Central Asian-Tibetan one, almost completely excluding elements of closely neighbouring geobotanical division units (Tropical, Irano-Turanian, Sino-Himalayan (Dickoré 1991)). The flora is extremely diverse, with a large number of endemic species (Figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18), many of which are medicinally used, including interesting medicinal (Fig. 19) and edible (Fig. 20) fungi. In the Eastern Himalaya alone from 1998 to 2008, each year an average of 35 new species were discovered (Xu et al. 2019).

Fig. 11

Iris kashmiriana, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 12

Rheum webbianum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 13

Pinus roxburghii, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 14

Anisomeles indica, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 15

Meconopsis betonicifolia, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 16

Juniperus excelsa, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 17

Rhododendron arboreum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 18

Rhododendron afghanicum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 19

Ganoderma lucidum, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 20

Morchella esculenta (Morchellaceae) Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

Vegetation Zonation

Colline Belt

The colline belt comprises the warm-temperate zone of the valley floors and adjacent lower slopes. Except for the southmost localities in Nuristan, southern Chitral, Dir, Swat and lndus Kohistan, the colline belt is arid. Closed forests are naturally absent in the north, apart from alluvial Tamarix, Elaeagnus, Salix or Populus groves or plantations within the irrigated and cultivated areas. The colline belt shows a considerable increase of its upper limit from 2100 m in the south to about 2400 m in the north. This is, however, distinctly less than the increase of the effective lower valley floor from slightly above 1000 m to above 2500 m. All vegetation types of the colline belt are used as winter pasture (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

The natural vegetation of the comparatively moist southern valleys has been largely removed by wood-cutting and irrigated cultivation or highly degraded through grazing. Remaining examples of this vegetation type resemble a subtropical thorn steppe. This is apparently a replacement community of thermophilous broad-leaved and Pinus roxburghii forests on the northwestern margin of their distribution. The moist thermophilous forest comprises a very characteristic West Himalayan formation. This vegetation type is originally relatively rich in tree and shrub species but under the present utilization mostly degraded. Ruderal areas covered by almost monospecific stands of Dodonaea viscosa represent extreme stages of degradation. Along steep valley and gorge sections (e.g. Lower Kunar Valley), Quercus baloot and other submontane species (Prunus cornuta) descend into the colline belt. A certain west-east gradient is also apparent. Monotheca buxifolia characterizes the Afghan fraction of the area. Quercus incana and an increasing proportion of Himalayan species are found from Dir and Swat eastwards (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

The dry colline belt of the main valley floors is a rather uniform and species-poor formation of desert scrub and occasional small desert trees. Haloxylon griffithii and Pulicaria salviaefolia extend to an altitude of approximately 2400 m. Besides many widespread and common taxa, including scattered small trees of Pistacia atlantica subsp. cabulica and Pistacia khinjuk in fissures of rock outcrops, the arid colline belt of the main Chitral Valley seems to be characterized by a few endemics (Bupleurum gilesii) and occasional eastern outposts of West Pamirean and Irano-Turanian elements (Gontscharovia popovii, Celtis caucasica). Some areas are characterized by Haloxylon thornsonii and Haplophyllum gilesii, vicariant endemics of the upper lndus Valley (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

The Kashgarian lowland is equivalent to the colline zone up to the foot of the mountains. Temperate stone, more rarely alluvial loess and sand deserts, and oases comprise the westernmost extension of the Mongolian vegetation province. The Kashgarian flora is exceedingly poor in species compared to the E Mongolian as well as to the Middle Asiatic floras W of the bordering mountains. Beneath the widespread desert shrubs (Haloxylon ammodendron, Calligonum mongolicum), endemics are few (Myricaria pulcherrima, Apocynum hendersonii) (Dickoré 1991). The Kunlun foothills include montane and subalpine loess deserts and steppes. Common Central-Asiatic species (Sympegma regelii, Juniperus pseudosabina) and a few Irano-Turanian elements (Reaumuria soongarica, Acantholimon diapensioides) occur in the W part (Dickoré 1991).

Submontane Belt

The submontane belt shows a slight increase of its absolute upper limit from 2600 m in the south to 2800–2900 m in the north. In the same direction, a substantial change of vegetation character is obvious, from forest to scrub, steppe and desert steppe, occasionally with tree groves. The submontane belt is comparatively rich in herbaceous and shrubby species, which represent a transition from dominant (inner) West Himalayan elements in the south to Irano­Turanian and West Pamirean elements in the north (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Evergreen sclerophyllous oak forests with Quercus baloot are a conspicuous and characteristic vegetation type on the lower edge of the submontane belt in East Afghanistan and the West Himalayas. Diospyros lotus and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana are especially confined to the south slopes of Nuristan, lowermost Chitral, Dir and Swat. The altitudinal distribution of Quercus baloot extends from below 1250 m to 1300–1850 m. On south-facing slopes, altitudes between 1900 and 2350 m occasionally up to 2500 m are occupied by Quercus baloot woodlands (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Naturally open Pinus gerardiana forests near the absolute drought limit of forest distribution occur on the upper edge of the drier submontane belt, succeeding Quercus baloot, and are often followed by montane Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana forests. Substantial stands of Pinus gerardiana concentrate on the slopes at altitudes between approximately 2200 and 2600 m. Shelter provided by Pinus gerardiana seems to be an important precondition for a well-developed herbaceous and shrubby companion flora, including therophytes and geophytes, which in places provides relatively rich grazing grounds. Wood and the edible seeds of Pinus gerardiana are another valuable resource (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Open steppe and dwarf-scrub formations in which Irano-Turanian and West Pamirean elements (e.g. Scabiosa olivieri, Saussurea leptophylla, Scutellaria multicaulis) prevail occupy considerable areas, e.g. of central Chitral. Many of the characteristic species are at their eastern limit of distribution, but some (Artemisia persica, Fraxinus xanthoxyloides) reoccur in the dry valleys of Gilgit, Baltistan and Ladakh. Groves of Prunus kuramica and Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos and other xerophytic trees occur regularly (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Montane Belt

The montane belt ranges from 2600 to 3200 m in the south and from 2800 to 3500 m in the north. It is generally a belt of dark boreal-style coniferous forests in the south, whereas almost treeless steppes are found in the north. Even, for example, in the humid southern part of Chitral and adjacent areas, the montane forest is discontinuous and restricted to smaller patches, mostly on north-facing slopes, alternating with steppe and scrub vegetation on south-facing slopes. This pattern, while related to climatic properties, is especially influenced by anthropo-zoogenic disturbance. Vegetation cover is variable and depends strongly on the intensity of pastoral utilization (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Rather small and disjunct forest areas dominated by mixed deciduous trees and laurophyllous oaks occur in the south (Nuristan, Dir, Swat) and in Kalasha. These evergreen-mixed forests contain Quercus dilatata (2000–2400 m) and Quercus semecarpifolia (2400–2900 m), are confined to the most humid areas and are under high threat, being widely cleared for grazing and cultivation (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

The montane belt accommodates West Himalayan coniferous forests. Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana characterize this formation, which is widely distributed from East Afghanistan to West Nepal. In the southwestern Karakorum and in the Nanga Parbat area, Picea and Pinus wallichiana range further north, whereas Abies is mainly restricted to the southern declivity of Nanga Parbat and the Astor Valley, and Cedrus extends north only to the Chilas section of the lndus Gorge. Cedrus deodara though usually dominates towards the lower edge of the montane forest (about 2450–3050 m) and Pinus wallichiana towards the higher altitudes. Abies and Picea are relatively rare. The cedar is regarded as the most valuable timber resource, and management is urgently needed to preserve these stands and their sustainable utilization. The shrub and herb layers of well-developed Cedrus deodara forests can be rich in West Himalayan (Carex cardiolepis, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Podophyllum hexandrum) and endemic elements (Saussurea chitralica) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Considerable areas in the moist montane belt are either naturally covered by or anthropo-zoogenously converted into dwarf-scrub, scrub and meadow-steppe vegetation. In places, treeless south-facing slopes are covered by Artemisia brevifolia, dwarf-scrub and open scrub formations.

The semiarid montane belt is substantially treeless, apart from occasional Juniperus semiglobosa groves, mostly in water surplus situations on slopes and small patches of riverine forest (Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii, Populus nigra, Populus pamirica). The widespread Artemisia brevifolia, Artemisia persica, Krascheninnikovia ceratoides and some other species connect the montane belts of Hindukush and the upper Karakorum (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Subalpine Belt

The subalpine belt comprises the zone around the (potential) upper treeline and extends between 3200 and 3800 m in the south and from 3500 to 4000 m in the north. Species composition of the subalpine belt comprises balanced proportions of montane and alpine species. However, the definition of the subalpine belt is more difficult in the treeless north, where a scrub belt can be absent too. Local variation of subalpine vegetation types is high due to various natural and anthropogenic factors. In avalanche trails and around the major high mountain massifs, subalpine and alpine vegetation may locally descend to lower altitudes. Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii, probably the most common and distinctive subalpine tree of the western Himalayas, is generally rare and at its northern limit of distribution (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

A subalpine krummholz belt is developed along the upper edge of montane forests through the south of the study area. It is characterized by shrub species of a wide West- or Pan-Himalayan distribution (Juniperus squamata, Lonicera obovata, Salix denticulata), with occasional Betula utilis subsp. jacquemontii groves or some stunted conifer trees from the montane belt below. Throughout the area the treeline ecotone zones rarely show regular patterns, due to steep microclimatic exposure gradients and often strong human interference (grazing, burning, selective cutting) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

The subalpine vegetation encompasses dwarf shrublands and steppe formations, which often show considerable proportions of thorn cushions (Acantholimon lycopodioides, Astragalus lasiosemius, Astragalus strobilijerus) in their life-form composition. Besides dry open turf (Carex stenophylla) or bunch grass steppes (Festuca olgae), a variety of low shrubs, subshrubs and herbs may come to local dominance. The semiarid subalpine scrub and steppe include many taxa which are widely distributed in the inner mountains of western Central Asia and occasional endemics. The distribution of Saussurea gilesii is almost exclusively confined to the area covered by the vegetation map, including adjacent Wakhan and westernmost Gilgit. The corresponding vegetation type from the southwestern Karakorum (lower Gilgit, Hunza, Baltistan) is accordingly somewhat different. Of its genus, which is prolific in the Irano-Turanian region, Acantholimon lycopodioides is the only species to extend eastwards through the southwestern Karakorum and inner western Himalayas to Ladakh. Thorn cushions (Acantholimon, Astragalus) and other dwarf shrubs (Artemisia, Ephedra gerardiana) are used for fuel and thatch roofs, especially in the vicinity of seasonally inhabited pastoral settlements (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Alpine Belt

The alpine belt accommodates a small-scale mosaic of hemicryptophyte and chamaephyte-dominated meadow, turf and dwarf-scrub communities. Extensive areas of open rock faces and unstable scree slopes are almost devoid of vegetation or accommodate only a very thin cover of highly specialized plants. Differences in parent rock, substrate, relief position and soil moisture obviously account for local variation of plant distribution (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

The alpine regions of Nuristan, southern Chitral, Dir, Swat, southwestern Karakorum, Nanga Parbat, Kashmir and lndus-Kohistan accommodate fairly closed turf and dwarf-scrub communities. In eastern­most Afghanistan, this formation is already at its absolute western limit. In its overall composition, the humid alpine belt especially in the Hindukush is a transition zone between the species-rich alpine vegetation of the outer Himalayas from Hazara and Kashmir eastwards and the corresponding more species-poor communities of the southwestern Karakorum and the inner western Himalayas. Besides turf and dwarf-scrub communities, the humid alpine belt accommodates a variety of specialized rock fissure and scree slope habitats. Tall forb, meadow and scrub vegetation join steep shady rock bases, streams and melt­water courses (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Open steppe, dwarf-scrub and desert vegetation characterize the alpine belt of northern Chitral. The respective mosaic of alpine rock and scree vegetation, including a few patches of more dense turf vegetation along bases of gravel fans, snowfields and other water surplus habitats, is relatively rich in species. Average vegetation cover of the Hindukush alpine belt is though much lower, usually far below 30% of the surface. Floristic relations are with much of the eastern Pamirs and with the central and northern Karakorum. Characteristic species include taxa that are widely distributed through much of the Karakorum (Carex nivalis, Kobresia karakorumensis, Lonicera semenovii, Tanacetum pyrethroides) and the Tibetan Plateau (Oxytropis tatarica, Poa attenuata). Pamirean elements, which usually reach their southeastern limit of distribution approximately from the Chitral-Gilgit divide to the Khunjerab Pass (Draba korshinskyi, Smelowskia calycina), are also well represented. Another group of species, which is absent from the Gilgit-lndus basin and the wider southwestern Karakorum, reoccurs disjunctively in the dry mountains of Ladakh, Zanskar and Spiti in northwest India (Alajja rhomboidea, Parrya stenocarpa) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002). The Kunlun Shan N slope is the richest in species, including Central and N Asian elements, possibly also the (relatively) highest concentration of Sino-Himalayan elements (Braya thomsonii, Rhodiola himalensis). The border between the Mongolian and the Tibetan vegetation provinces can be drawn over the Kunlun N slope. There are some endemics (Braya pamirica, Koeleria litwinowiana) and additional species indicating a certain role of the Kunlun N slope as a glacial refuge and interglacial migration path (Thermopsis alpina, Thermopsis inflata). Thus, the “Kunlun Corridor” on the N margin of Tibet may be set against the Himalayan Corridor on the S rim of Tibet. However, since forests are absent and the comparatively poor flora includes only a few extant endemics, the “Kunlun Corridor” is by far less important and conspicuous than the Himalayan (Dickoré 1991). The Aghil Shan N slope and Yarkand valley can be considered as a transitional zone between NW central Asian and Tibetan high mountain vegetation or part of a “Circum-Tibetan Zone.” Similar vegetation features seem to be widespread around the extremely dry and high interior of Tibet. Accordingly, many of the species are widely distributed at least over NW Tibet and extend variously into adjacent mountain ranges such as the Tian Shan, the Pamirs, the Hindukush and more distant systems. Typical species possibly are Kobresia deasyi and Primula macrophylla; for certain groups within large holarctic genera such as Oxytropis, Potentilla, Gentianella sect. Comastoma, this zone may represent a centre of diversity. In the Central Karakoram N slope/Shaksgam valley, the vegetation features are similar to most of the central high mountains and the interior valleys of the Pamir­Karakoram-imalaya-S Tibet system. Carex montis-everestii, Oxytropis cf. chiliophylla, Potentilla pammca and Thylacospermum caespitosum may be considered characteristic for the inner section of the Karakoram N slope (Dickoré 1991).

Nival Belt

The nival belt is generally extremely species-poor. There are no more than 20–50 plant species in the sub-nival belt. Most of these taxa are specialized rhizomatous scree colonizers or rock-fissure cushions, which both must be able to cope with low temperatures and mechanical stress caused by frequent freezing and thawing. Western elements, which often are restricted to the eastern Pamir, eastern Hindukush and Karakorum (Oxytropis platonychia, Lagotis globosa, Psychrogeton olgae), seem to outnumber the Pan-Tibetan ones (Draba oreades, Saussurea gnaphalodes) (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Anthropogenic Impact

The Hindukush-Karakoram region has been settled by humans for millennia and has always been an important migration and trade route. The altitudinal distribution of cultivated areas ranges from the colline to the lower montane belt. As crop cultivation is almost entirely dependent on the availability of glacial and snow meltwater for irrigation, the settlement oases with agriculture are located along the streams and especially on the alluvial fans of tributary valleys and on cultivable slopes (Fig. 21). Access through new road construction has started to greatly impact especially the forest belt of the region (Fig. 22).

Fig. 21

Houses in Marghazar Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 22

Road construction in Picea forest, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

The cultivation of riverbanks and the steep slopes has always been difficult. A sophisticated network of water distribution forms the precondition of irrigated agriculture (Fig. 23).

Fig. 23

Traditional tillage, Sulathan, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Commonly cultivated crops include rice (Oryza sativa) up to approximately 2300 m, maize (Zea mays) to 2900 m, wheat (Triticum durum, Triticum aestivum) to approximately 3300 m and barley (Hordeum vulgare) to 3500 m. Cultivation of Cannabis saliva often within maize fields is common in the northern tributaries, especially in Yarkhun and Laspur. Double cropping is possible in the main valley between Drosh and Buni and in the lowermost portions of Turkho Valley, with an upper limit at approximately 2500 m. Crop residues; hay, supplemented by cultivated lucerne (Medicago saliva, Medicago x varia); leaves of planted trees (Salix spp., Populus spp.); and indigenous hygrophilous bushes (Hippophae rhamnoides) supply winter fodder of livestock. Cultivation of fruit trees, especially mulberries (Morus alba), apricots (Prunus armeniaca) and walnuts (Juglans regia) is limited to a small scale and altitudes below approximately 2900 m (Nüsser and Dickoré 2002).

Many of the forests are in poor condition due to anthropogenic disturbances, including illegal cutting, regional land use systems, irrigated crop cultivation and nomadic livestock husbandry. These factors have a considerable impact on the vegetation types (Khan et al. 2010) and result in the degradation of large areas of land in different elevational belts and subregions (Alamgir 2004; Khan et al. 2011). Numerous recent studies described plant communities with a special emphasis on forest vegetation affected by anthropogenic activities in various climatic zones of Pakistan (Nafeesa et al. 2007; Siddiqui et al. 2010; Ahmed et al. 2011; Wahab et al. 2008; Khan et al. 2011; Shaheen et al. 2011).

The local forests are the main source of non-agricultural livelihoods and are widely used for collection of firewood (Fig. 24), often leading to the destruction of easily accessible roots (Fig. 25) and the burning of forest resources in the progress (Fig. 26).

Fig. 24

Fuel wood collectors, Miandam Valley, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 25

Cut roots of Picea, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 26

Burnt trees, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Peat from high subalpine and alpine wetlands is also collected as fuel (Fig. 27), and many of the upper forest areas have been converted to extensive pastures (Fig. 28). In addition, many plant species are collected for medicinal purposes, both for local use and sale, as well as for the production of utensils (Figs. 29 and 30).

Fig. 27

Peat harvested as fuel, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

Fig. 28

Pastures in Picea forest, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 29

Old man with a medicinal plant collection bag. Note trees with cut branches in the background, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 30

Utensil workshop, Hunza Valley, Pakistan. Utensils are mostly made from Salix wood. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

The landscape at the upper parts of the region is known for its glaciated peaks, high altitudinal wetlands, green pastures and biodiversity of global significance. Each component of the landscape has a tremendous importance from different perspectives. However, this is because of the anthropogenic pressures that this important landscape is steadily losing its ecological characters that it is known for. The natural landscape is fragmented because of human settlements, roads and other ill-planned and unsustainable developments resulting in the weakening of the socio-economic systems leading to the loss of natural livelihood base. The situation is further worsened and accelerated further by climate change and enhanced populations of both humans and their livestock. Given the ecological importance of the landscape, its glaciated peaks and pastures and wildlife species of global importance, the specified part of the landscape is under focus for conservation that requires the creation of Protected Areas, wise use of the available land and water resources, monitoring of the health of the sensitive features such as glaciers and social strengthening of the local communities for them to take care of the fragile ecosystems of this fragile landscape.

About 60% of the agriculture lands, forests and pastures of our country are progressively being exposed to threats from increased climatic variability and, in the longer run, to climate change. Abnormal changes in air temperature and rainfall and resulting increases in frequency and intensity of drought and flood events have long-term implications for the viability of these ecosystems (Bell and Morse 2004). As climatic patterns change, so also do the spatial distribution of agro-ecological zones, habitats, distribution patterns of plant diseases and pests, fish populations and ocean circulation patterns which can have significant impacts on agriculture and food production.

Adaptation to climate change is, therefore, no longer a secondary and long-term response option only to be used as a last resort. It is now prevalent and imperative and, for those communities already vulnerable to the impacts of present-day climate hazards, needs an urgent imperative. Successful adaptation must be accomplished through actions that target and reduce the vulnerabilities poor people now face, as they are likely to become more prevalent as the climate changes. This approach calls for a convergence of four distinct communities who have long been tackling the issue of vulnerability reduction through their respective activities vs. disaster risk reduction, climate and climate change, environmental management and poverty reduction. Bringing these communities together and offering a common platform and a shared vocabulary from which to develop an integrated approach to climate change adaptation can provide an opportunity to revisit some of the intractable problems of environment and development. The starting point for this convergence is a common understanding of the concepts of adaptation, vulnerability, resilience, security, poverty and livelihoods, as well as an understanding of the gaps in current adaptation approaches. Taken together, they indicate a need and an opening for adaptation measures based on the livelihood activities of poor and vulnerable communities. This places the goal of poverty reduction at the centre of adaptation, as the capabilities and assets that comprise people’s livelihoods often shape poverty as well as the ability to move out of poverty.

Any approach to improve the livelihoods of the population, and to improve environmental management, requires an understanding of how livelihoods are conducted and sustained, that is, how resources are mobilized to earn an income and meet basic needs. Central to both the definition of livelihoods and household resilience are livelihood assets, i.e. the means of production available to a given individual or group that can be used to generate material resources sufficient enough to reduce poverty. The greater and more varied the asset base, the more sustainable and secure the livelihood. There are generally five forms of livelihood assets: natural capital, social-political capital, human capital, physical capital and financial capital. Taken together, these assets largely determine how people will respond to the impacts of climate change and should, therefore, form the basis of adaptation strategies. At present our five livelihood assets are highly disturbed. Therefore, facing the crisis of food insecurity and at the same time without any strategy for the future planning, the world is also facing global environmental crisis like global warming, ozone layer depletion and climatic change, which have reduced 10% of our productivity from the green sectors of livelihoods. However, all of these assets are important, and natural resources are particularly important for the poorest and most vulnerable communities in the world especially in mountainous areas. The poor are more heavily dependent on ecosystem services and, therefore, most severely affected by deteriorating environmental conditions and factors limiting resource access. While climate change is not the only threat to natural resources and livelihoods, climate-induced changes to resource flows will affect the viability of livelihoods unless effective measures are taken to protect and diversify them through adaptation and other strategies. For the poorest and most vulnerable, these strategies should include ecosystem management and restoration activities such as watershed restoration, agroecology, forest protection and rangeland/pasture rehabilitation. In fact, these activities can represent “win-win” approaches to climate change adaptation, as they serve immediate needs and bring immediate benefits to local communities while also contributing to longer-term capacity development that will create a basis for reducing future vulnerabilities.If adaptation strategies should reflect the dynamics of peoples’ livelihoods, then adaptation must be seen as a process that is itself adaptive and flexible to address locally specific and changing circumstances. The responsibility for adaptation lies with those who stand to gain the most. While those with the least capacity to adapt are the most vulnerable, they are also the most likely and most motivated to take conscious adaptation actions. For the poor and vulnerable, the actions that they take will be constrained by their limited assets and capabilities, but they will also be the most appropriate given the specific local manifestations of climate change impacts. These actions should be supported by external agencies in collaboration with ministries of environment and agriculture to build up the asset base of the poor.

Traditionally, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) have been used widely in the region to supplement food and to cure disease (Saqib et al. 2011; Sher et al. 2014, 2015). Currently however, their collection is limited to informal trade of a few high-value endangered species in localized areas of Swat District. The benefits of informal trade are disproportionately enjoyed by the middlemen, while the collectors, both resident and nomadic, gain very little. The indigenous knowledge about MAPs is also fast fading in the wake of the increased use of allopathic medicines, increased interest of younger generations in urban-based employment and lack of interest by formal public and development institutions in documenting knowledge of MAPs (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008; de Boer et al. 2012). This paper reports on a project designed to promote livelihoods in local communities by documenting indigenous knowledge of MAPS, promoting their sustainable use and promoting fair trade. We hypothesized that these goals could be achieved through awareness raising and capacity building of the stakeholders including the government line departments, NGOs and the communities. These initiatives would benefit the nomadic and resident populations, particularly the landless, small landholders and the vulnerable in general, for whom income generation from MAPs can be a crucial part of their livelihoods. The aim of the present project, therefore, was to create awareness on these issues and to promote sustainable use of MAPs for improved livelihoods and economic development of the target communities. The project revealed that preliminary work showed that species having medicinal and aromatic value are abundant in Swat District, but, considering them weeds, farmers remove them from their fields and grazing areas through slash and burn techniques. In addition, it was found that a number of other high-value MAP species can be successfully cultivated in these environments (Sher et al. 2014; Sher and Barkworth 2015).

To ensure the sustainable long-term use of MAP resources, a community-based approach with capacity building and linkage to development is needed. This approach can be adapted based on the premise that sustainable use, management and efficient marketing of MAPs will only be possible if communities are involved from the outset and provide with opportunities to improved their awareness of the issues, develop the necessary knowledge and skills and, most importantly, help link directly with national markets. Participatory approaches for conducting general awareness-raising sessions are important. Village Development Committees (VDCs), where available, should be involved in the selection of participants for various trainings and for the implementation of all activities as recommended by Bussmann et al. (2008).

Focus group discussions (FGD) can be conducted in each village, with MAP collectors and local traders as the main participants to prioritize the important MAPs and delineate the area in a participatory map where prioritized MAPs are found as well as their abundance in each of the forest compartments (Wimmer and Dominic 1994, and Babbie 1992) (Figs. 31, 32, and 33).

Fig. 31

Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop, Swat, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 32

Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop, practical fieldwork, Rodingar Valley, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

Fig. 33

Medicinal and Aromatic Plant collection and production training workshop – collected material drying, Miandam Valley, Pakistan. (Photo Hassan Sher & Ikram Ur-Rahman)

It is important to emphasize that the communities have taken an immense interest in sustainable development of MAPs despite being asked to participate in an activity-based, short-term project with a relatively low budget. It will take some time before the true impact of the project can be ascertained, but benefits for the participating communities included the discovery that many of the weeds around their houses and in their agricultural fields are actually economically valuable species. In the past these species were used for fodder or fuelwood (Sher et al. 2010). Increasing the interest of communities in making income out of these plants using sustainable methods will not endanger them (Mati and de Boer 2011; Myers et al. 2000; Salick et al. 2004). Furthermore, enhanced capacity through cultivation and cash income through marketing of a several will decrease pressure on the few high-value endangered species that were traditionally being harvested both by the government and communities for income generation.

Such interactions, particularly those between the community representatives and government officials result in community empowerment. Communities can learn about existing regulations for forest use, and the possibilities to cultivate and market high-value herbs in demand in the market and to create a better linkages between the government institutions and the communities and cultivation of alternate species are expected to decrease reliance on harvesting of endangered species for cash income.

Because of the tremendous importance of the region from ecological, socio-economic and climate change perspectives, considering the current rate of ecosystem degradation, impact of climate change and inadequacy of resources to support scientific management of natural resources; recognizing the need to address socio-cultural and socio-economic issues leading to sustainable development and regional cooperation for management under the “ecosystem approach” in conserving irreplaceable and unique biodiversity resources; and enhancing the socio-economic status of the local population, a variety of steps are needed to manage and conserve the Hindukush-Karakoram ecosystem in the future.