Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Suicidal Self-Burning in Women and Men Around the World: A Cultural and Gender Analysis of Patterns and Explanations

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Suicide Risk Assessment and Prevention

  • 1145 Accesses

Abstract

Self-burning is a violent suicide method with high morbidity and mortality. In some regions it is most common among women and in other regions among men. This pattern is consistent with a foundational idea in suicide-scripts theory (Canetto, 1997) – specifically, that the typical suicidal individual and suicide method vary by culture. Women’s predominance, in some regions, among the suicidal self-burning challenges many myths about gender and suicide, including the idea that women always avoid disfiguring, painful, and highly lethal methods. A common script in terms of the motivation and meanings of suicidal self-burning is that it is a way to protest against social injustices and persecution. In the case of women, the social injustices and persecution are institutionally enabled but typically perpetrated by close family. The social injustice context and the protest message of women’s suicidal self-burning are well-articulated in the literature but are often lost when the situation is summarized as a family problem or a mental health issue. The social injustices and persecution associated with men’s suicidal self-burning typically involve distant institutions, such as the government. The social injustice and protest framework remains central to the dominant narrative of men’s suicidal self-burning. Questions about personal (e.g., mental health) difficulties potentially contributing to men’s suicidal self-burning are not asked. To correct these gender biases in the suicidal self-burning literature, we recommend privileging attention to social factors in theory, research, and the prevention of women’s suicidal self-burning; and to psychological and close relationship factors in theory, research, and the prevention of men’s self-burning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 649.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 699.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Aghakhani N, Lopez V, Parizad N, Baghaei R. “It was like nobody cared about what I said?” Iranian women committed self-immolation: a qualitative study. BMC Womens Health. 2021;21:75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01121-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Agoramoorthy G, Hsu MJ. The suicide paradigm: insights from ancient Hindu scriptures. J Relig Health. 2017;56:807–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Ahmadi A. Suicide by self-immolation: comprehensive overview, experiences and suggestions. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28:30–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Ahmadi A, Ytterstad B. Prevention of self-immolation by community-based intervention. Burns. 2007;33:1032–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Alaghenhbandan R, Lari AR, Joghataei M-T, Islami A, Motavalian A. A prospective population-based study of suicidal behavior by burns in the province of Ilam, Iran. Burns. 2011;37:164–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Amin PM, Mirlashari J, Nasrabadi AN. A cry for help and protest: self-immolation in young Kurdish Iraqi women – a qualitative study. Int J Community Based Nurs Midwifery. 2018;6:56–64.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Anil R, Nadkarni A. Suicide in India: a systematic review. Shanghai Arch Psychiatry. 2014;26:69–80.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Anandakugna N. The Sri Lankan civil war and its history, revisited in 2020. 2020. https://hir.harvard.edu/sri-lankan-civil-war/.

  9. Aziz N. What self immolation means to afghan women. Peace Rev. 2011;23:45–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Barbagli M. Farewell to the world: a history of suicide. Cambrigde, UK: Polity Press; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Batra AK. Burn mortality: recent trends and sociocultural determinants in rural India. Burns. 2003;29:270–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Beaumont P. Mohammed Bouazizi; the dutiful son whose death changed Tunisa’s fate. The Guardian. 2011, January 20. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/20/tunisian-fruit-seller-mohammed-bouazizi

  13. Ben Cheikh I, Rousseau C, Mekki-Berrada A. Suicide as protest against social suffering in the Arab world. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;198:494–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Ben Khelil M, Zgarni A, Zafrane M, Chkribane Y, Gharbaoui M, Harzallah H, Ahmed B, Moncef H. Suicide by self-immolation in Tunisia a 10 year study (2005–2014). Burns. 2016;42:1593–9.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Ben Khelil M, Zgarni A, Ben Mohamed M, Allouche M, Benzarti A, Banasr A, Hamdoun M. A comparison of suicidal behavior by burns five years before and five years after the 2011 Tunisian revolution. Burns. 2017;43:858–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Benn JA. Burning for the Buddha: self-immolation in Chinese Buddhism. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ben Park BC. Sociopolitical context of self-immolations in Vietnam and South Korea. Arch Suicide Res. 2004;8:81–97.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Billaud J. Suicidal performances: Voicing discontent in a girls’ dormitory in Kabul. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2012;36:264–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Boostani D, Abdinia S, Anaraki NR. Women victims of self-immolation: A ‘Grounded Theory’ study in Iran. Qual Quant. 2013;47:3153–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Cai ZY, Canetto SS, Chang Q, Yip PSF. Women’s suicide in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: do laws discriminating against women matter? Soc Sci Med. 2022; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114035.

  21. Canetto SS. She died for love and he for glory: gender myths of suicidal behavior. Omega J Death Dying. 1992–1993;26:1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Canetto SS. Gender issues in the treatment of suicidal individuals. Death Stud. 1994;18:513–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Canetto SS. Gender and suicidal behavior: theories and evidence. In: Maris RW, Silverman MM, Canetto SS, editors. Review of suicidology. New York, NY: Guilford; 1997. p. 138–67.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Canetto SS. Women and suicidal behavior: a cultural analysis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2008;78:259–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Canetto SS. Suicidal ideation and behaviors in girls and women in the United States and Canada: cultural and intersectional perspectives. In: Lamis DA, Kaslow NJ, editors. Advancing the science of suicidal behavior: understanding and intervention. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science; 2015a. p. 215–36.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Canetto SS. Suicidal behaviors among Muslim women. Patterns, pathways, meanings, and prevention. Crisis. 2015b;36:447–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Canetto SS. Suicide: why are older men so vulnerable? Men Masculinities. 2017;20:49–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Canetto SS. Women and human rights: concepts, debates, progress and implications. In: Travis C, White J, editors. APA handbook on the psychology of women, vol. II. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2018. p. 521–43.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Canetto SS. Language, culture, gender, and intersectionalities in suicide theory, research, and prevention: challenges and changes. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2021;51:1045–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Canetto SS, Chen J. Women and suicidal behavior: paradigm-shift lessons from China. In: Cheung F, Halpern D, editors. Cambridge handbook of the international psychology of women. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2020. p. 497–513.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  31. Canetto SS, Lester D. Gender, culture and suicidal behavior. Transcult Psychiatry. 1998;35:163–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Canetto SS, Rezaeian M. Protest suicide among Muslim women: a human rights perspective. In: Button ME, Marsh I, editors. Suicide and social justice: new perspectives on the politics of suicide and suicide prevention. New York, NY: Routledge; 2020. p. 102–21.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Cleary M, Singh J, West S, Farshi MR, Lopez V, Kornhaber R. Drivers and consequences of self-immolation in parts of Iran, Iraq and Uzbekistan: a systematic review of qualitative evidence. Burns. 2021;47:25–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Darabi P, Tomson RP. Rage against the veil. The courageous life and death of an Islamic dissident. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Daruwalla N, Belur J, Kumar M, Tiwari V, Sarabahi S, Tilley N, Osrin D. A qualitative study of the background and in-hospital medicolegal response to female burn injuries in India. BMC Womens Health. 2014;14:142. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6874/14/142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Devries K, Watts C, Yoshihama M, Kiss L, Schraiber LB, Deyessa N, et al. Violence against women is strongly associated with suicide attempts: evidence from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73:79–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Devries KM, Seguin M. Violence against women and suicidality: does violence cause suicidal behavior? In: Garcia-Moreno C, Riecher-Rössler A, editors. Violence against women and mental health: key issues in mental health, vol. 178. Basel, Switzerland: Karger; 2013. p. 148–58.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  38. Fassihi, F. (2019) Iran’s ‘blue girl’ wanted to watch a soccer match. She died pursuing her dream. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/10/world/middleeast/iran-women-sports-sahar-khodayari.html).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Groohi B, Rossignol AM, Barrero SP, Alaghehbandan R. Suicidal behavior by burns among adolescents in Kurdistan, Iran: a social tragedy. Crisis. 2006;27:16–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Hahn AP, Jochai D, Caufield-Noll CP, Hunt CA, Allen LE, Rios R, Cordts GA. Self-inflicted burns: a systematic review of the literature. J Burn Care Res. 2014;35:102–119.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Haarr RN. Suicidality among battered women in Tajikistan. Violence Against Women. 2010;16:764–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Jedidi M, El Khal MC, Mlayeh S, Masmoudi T, Mahjoub M, Brahem MY, Ben Dhiab M, Zemni M, Soughir MK. Suicide and fire: a 20-year study of self-immolation death in Sousse, Tunisia. J Burn Care Res. 2017;38:e734–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Kanchan T, Anand M, Ritesh M. Methods of choice in completed suicides: gender differences and review of literature. J Forensic Sci. 2009;54:938–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Khankeh HR, Hosseini SA, Rezaie L, Shakeri J, Schwebel DC. A model to explain suicide by self immolation among Iranian women: a grounded theory study. Burns. 2015;41:1562–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Kumar V. Burnt wives–a study of suicides. Burns. 2003;29:31–35.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Kushhkadamova KO. Women’s self-immolation as a social phenomenon. Sociol Res. 2010;29:75–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Laloë V. Patterns of deliberate self-burning in various parts of the world: a review. Burns. 2004;30:207–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Laloë V, Ganesan M. Self-immolation: a common suicidal behaviour in eastern Sri Lanka. Burns. 2002;28:475–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Lankford A. Suicide for a cause. What is behind the Middle East’s new trend of self-immolation? Foreign Policy. 2011, January 19. https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/01/19/suicide-for-a-cause/

  50. Lebni JY, Mansourian M, Taghdisi MH, Khosravi B, Ziapour A, Ozdenk GD. A study of Kurdish women’s tragic self-immolation in Iran: a qualitative study. Burns. 2019;45:1715–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Lebni JY, Abbas J, Khorami F, Khosravi B, Jatali A, Ziapour A. Challenges facing women survivors self-immolation in Kurdish region of Iran: a qualitative study. Front Psych. 2020;11:778. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Mabrouk AR, Omar ANM, Massoud K, Sherif MM, El Sayed N. Suicide by burns: a tragic end. Burns. 1999;25:337–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Maghsoudi H, Garadagi A, Jafary GA, Azarmir G, Aali N, Karimian B, Tabrizi M. Women victims of self-inflicted burns in Tabriz, Iran. Burns. 2004;30:217–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Masoomi M, Gholamian F, Sharifi V, Shadloo B. Self immolation by women in Iran: a narrative review. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci. 2020;14(4):e96557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Mattei G, Pistoresi B, De Vogli R. Impact of the economic crises on suicide in Italy: the moderating role of active labor market programs. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2019;54:201–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Mirlashari J, Nasrabadi AN, Amin PM. Living with burn scars caused by self-immolation among women in Iraqi Kurdistan: a qualitative study. Burns. 2017;43:417–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Mohammad Amin MM, Hamah Ameen NR, Abed R, Abbas M. Self-burning in Iraqi Kurdistan: proportion and risk factors in a burns unit. Int Psychiatry. 2012;9:72–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Mohammadi M, Nedjat S, Dargahpour M, Mehri A, Majdzadeh R. Factors associated with self-burning among women in reproductive age of Ilam: a case-control study in a Western part of Iran. Arch Suicide Res. 2020, October:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Mohanty MK, Arun M, Monteiro FNP, Palimar V. Self-inflicted burns fatalities in Manipal, India. Med Sci Law. 2005;45:27–30.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Motlagh J. Self-immolation tragically frequent among Afghan women. World Politics Review. 2007, June 22. Retrieved from www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/873/self-immolation-tragically-frequent-among-afghan-women

  61. Murray Yang M. Still burning: self-immolation as photographic protest. Q J Speech. 2011;97:1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Mzezewa S, Jonsson K, Åberg M, Salemark L. A prospective study of suicidal burns admitted to the Harare burns unit. Burns. 2000;26:460–4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Natarajan M. Differences between intentional and non-intentional burns in India: implications for prevention. Burns. 2014;40:1033–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Nawa F. They prefer death over abuse: Afghan women protesting with self-immolation. San Francisco Chronicle. 2002, July 26. Retrieved from www.sfgate.com/news/article/They-prefer-death-over-abuse-Afghan-women-2818734.php

  65. Othman N. Suicide by self-burning in Iraqi Kurdistan: description and risk factors. Arch Suicide Res. 2011;15:238–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Othman N, Kendrick D. Epidemiology of burn injuries in the East Mediterranean region: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:83. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/10/83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Paiman MA, Khan MM. Suicide and deliberate self-harm in Afghanistan. Asian J Psychiatr. 2017;26:29–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Parvareh M, Hajizadeh M, Rezaei S, Nouri B, Moradi G, Nasab NE. Epidemiology and socio-demographic risk factors of self-immolation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Burns. 2018;44:767–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Poeschla B, Combs H, Livingstone S, Romm S, Klein MB. Self-immolation: socioeconomic, cultural and psychiatric patterns. Burns. 2011;37:1049–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Prajapati P, Prajapati S, Pandey J, V., & Prajapati N. Pattern of suicidal deaths in females of South Gujarat region. Natl J Med Res. 2012;2:31–4.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Rad FM, Anvari MM, Ansarinejad F, Panaghi L. Family function and social support in Iranian self-immolated women. Burns. 2012;38:556–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Raj A, Gomez F, Silverman JG. Driven to a fiery death: the tragedy of self-immolation in Afghanistan. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(21):2201–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Rajendran MK. A survey availability of kerosene is the leading cause of suicidal burns-death of females in Salem district, Tamil Nadu, India. Int Surg J. 2018;5:3814–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Rasool IA, Payton JL. Tongues of fire: women’s suicide and self-injury by burns in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. Sociol Rev. 2014;62:237–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Rawat S, Joshi PC, Khan MA, Saraswathy KN. Trends and determinants of suicide in Warangal District Telangana, India: six years retrospective study based on secondary data. Egypt J Forensic Sci. 2018;8:1–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Rezaeian M. Self-immolation in women: addressing an urgent human crisis. Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2017;6:2.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Rezaie L, Hosseini SA, Rassafiani M, Najafi F, Shakeri J, Khankeh HR. Why self-immolation? A qualitative exploration of the motives for attempting suicide by self-immolation. Burns. 2014;40:319–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Rezaie L, Khazaie H, Soleimani A, Schwebel DC. Is self-immolation a distinct method for suicide? A comparison of Iranian patients attempting suicide by self-immolation and by poisoning. Burns. 2011;37:159–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Saadati M, Azami-Aghdash S, Heydari M, Derakhshani N, Rezapour R. Self-immolation in Iran: systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull Emerg Trauma. 2019;7:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Sachedina A. End-of-life: the Islamic view. Lancet. 2005;366(99487):774–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Sakasjota T, Oyama H. Suicide prevention interventions and their linkages in multilayered approaches for older adults: a review and comparison. Front Public Health. 2022; https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2022.842193/abstract

  82. Savani S, Gearing RE, Frantsuz Y, Sozinova M. Suicide in Central Asia. Suicidology. 2020;11:1. www.suicidology-online.com/pdf/SOL-2020-11-1-1.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  83. Schapiro J. Tibet on fire: Buddhism, protest, and the rhetoric of self-immolation. Mater Relig. 2016;12:516–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Shakirov M, Ahmedov YM, Hakimov EA, Tagaev KR, Karabaev BH. Suicidal burns in Samarkand burn centers and their consequences. Ann Burns Fire Disasters. 2013;26:217–20.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Soboslai J. Violently peaceful: Tibetan self-immolation and the problem of the non/violence binary. Open Theol. 2015;1:146–59.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Soboslai J, Gruber G. The Bodhisattva, the Dharmarāja, and the Dalai Lamas: evaluating the religious and political causes of Tibetan self-immolation. J Am Acad Relig. 2018;86:759–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Waters A. Domestic dangers: approaches to women’s suicide in contemporary Maharashtra, India. Violence Against Women. 1999;5:525–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Verini, J. A terrible act-of reason: when did self-immolation become-the-paramount-form-of-protest? 2012, May 16. https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/a-terrible-act-of-reason-when-did-self-immolation-become-the-paramount-form-of-protest

  89. Wicker AW. Getting out of our conceptual ruts: strategies for expanding conceptual frameworks. Am Psychol. 1985;40:1094–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Wong YJ, Ho M-HR, Wang S-Y, Miller ISK. Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes. J Couns Psychol. 2017;64:80–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. World Health Organization. Preventing suicide: a global imperative. Geneva: Author; 2014. https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241564779

  92. World Health Organization. Suicide [Online]. World Health Organization. 2021. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/suicide

  93. Zarghami M. Selection of the person of the year from public health perspective: promotion of mass clusters of copycat self-immolation. Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci. 2012;6:1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Zarghami M, Khalilian A. Deliberate self-burning in Mazandaran, Iran. Burns. 2002;28:115–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Żuk P, Żuk P. An ‘ordinary man’s’ protest: self-immolation as a radical political message in Eastern Europe today and in the past. Soc Mov Stud. 2018;17:610–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA

    Silvia Sara Canetto

  2. Epidemiology and Biostatistics Department, Occupational Environment Research Center, Medical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran

    Shiva Pouradeli & Mohsen Rezaeian

  3. Brain & Mind Institute, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan

    Murad Moosa Khan

Authors
  1. Silvia Sara Canetto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shiva Pouradeli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Murad Moosa Khan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mohsen Rezaeian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Silvia Sara Canetto .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs, Suicide Prevention Center, Sant’Andrea Hospital, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

    Maurizio Pompili

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Canetto, S.S., Pouradeli, S., Khan, M.M., Rezaeian, M. (2022). Suicidal Self-Burning in Women and Men Around the World: A Cultural and Gender Analysis of Patterns and Explanations. In: Pompili, M. (eds) Suicide Risk Assessment and Prevention. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42003-1_61

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation