Wellbeing and Sustainability

Definition

Well-being and sustainability can be defined as two essential goals that sustainable development seeks to achieve.

Introduction

Wellbeing and sustainability are two distinct ideas, each with its own distinct history, that have converged to become interconnected concepts when considered in relation to the solutions required for the environmental crises of global warming, climate change, and pollution. Both wellbeing and sustainability are ideas that emerged in ancient cultures; however, the current concept of sustainability arose out of the ecological thinking and practices of the latter half of the twentieth century. Wellbeing and sustainability emerged from ancient cultures, one in the theoretical sense and another in the practical sense. The search for wellbeing in the ancient world is known today because of the preserved writings of ancient philosophers. Sustainable practices from ancient cultures are revealed through the archaeological record and extant historical documents. It can be said with great certainty that some ancient cultures and civilizations were indeed engaged in sustainable practices, for there was an awareness that was manifested through actions that understood that a balance must be preserved in nature. Sustainability in ancient cultures was practiced through various activities by seeking a balance between the extraction of resources and the long-term vitality of the environment. Such practices provided safeguards for the continuous integrity of a particular civilization. Preindustrial civilizations existed mostly in a state of balance with nature due to the technological limits in relation to the depth of the extraction of resources in the earth and the limited knowledge of methods of control of the fossil fuels buried deep underground. The loss of this balance was foreseen in the productive yet quite destructive mining techniques of medieval Europe. The environmentally destructive medieval mining practices in Europe were precursors to the Industrial Revolution and to the current state of resource extraction and processing that is reliant on dirty fossil fueled machines (See De Re Metallica by Georgius Agricola for an extensive study on medieval mining techniques and metallurgy.). The pursuit of wellbeing, sustainability, and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals are being carried out in order to regain this lost balance. In order to better understand how individuals, communities, universities, local and central governments, and private and public organizations may actively participate in the creation and implementation of sustainable and green systems, it is essential to understand the various ways in which an awareness of wellbeing contributes to such systems, and why wellbeing is such a central issue within the theoretical and practical thinking involved in the creation of such systems. Although sustainability in its current form is a modern, twentieth-century idea, many ancient and preindustrial civilizations and societies did indeed live sustainably, and it is therefore of great value to investigate the various methods of production and ways of living that existed throughout history. Such investigations are necessary because groups and individuals living in technological, industrial, and postindustrial societies in the twenty-first century and beyond may benefit by recognizing and understanding that certain ancient sustainable practices and technologies have a place in the contemporary world. Furthermore, it is crucial to investigate the philosophical and scientific foundations of a society in order to better understand its intentions and pursuits. In order to not only address but also to solve the environmental crises the world faces, humanity must deeply consider the nature of work, the mechanisms of industrialization, the questionable decisions and flawed thinking that allows for environmental pollution, and the hidden, underlying causes that determine daily actions. Archaeological remnants, philosophical texts, and other historical documents reveal secrets hidden by the passage of time that assist researchers and scholars in determining the ways of living that may be described as sustainable, educated, prosperous, and enduring.

Ethics and the Good Life

One direct pathway toward reaching an understanding concerning the nature of human action and the attainment of wellbeing is found in an investigation into the extant writings of ancient philosophers. These writings, which survived throughout history, are in a way archaeological remnants, and they were transcribed over centuries on parchment in many languages, and these writings reveal the science, ethics, and cosmology of particular advanced and lasting societies and states that were engaged in sustainable practices. This pathway toward understanding wellbeing leads to an investigation into the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers, especially into the ethical and political writings of Aristotle and in particular the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics. Aristotle’s investigations into human nature in the Nicomachean Ethics are centered on the pursuit and permanent possession of the good life. Aristotle states at the beginning of the Nicomachean Ethics that all human actions and choices aim at some good; the goal of economics is wealth, the goal of medicine is health, and the goal of strategy is victory. Beyond the particular goals of each activity, there exists the good, which is the reason behind all human actions. All actions and activities are teleological in the sense that they are partaken in because of the search for the acquisition of the good. The good is the object of study in the science of politics, because states in a way are responsible for sanctioning approved activities and determining what is just. This sanctioning is carried out in order for states as a whole and their citizens to attain the good (“For even if the end is the same for a single man and for a state, that of the state seems at all events something greater and more complete both to attain and to preserve; for though it is worth while to attain the end merely for one man, it is finer and more godlike to attain it for a nation or for city-states.” Nicomachean Ethics, Book I, Ch. 2, 1094^a7–11.). All sciences and activities strive toward their respective goods; however, beyond those particular goods, there exists the highest good, and that is what all actions are carried out for. Aristotle identifies this highest good as happiness or eudaimonia. Etymologically, this word in ancient Greek is composed of the words eu (good) and daimon (spirit), and it is often translated as happiness, or human flourishing. Happiness and wellbeing are achieved through living well, or eu zen, and living well is characterized by partaking in virtuous activities. Happiness is the goal of all human actions, and it is sought after for its own sake, and because of this fact, it is the most complete and self-sufficient of goals. Aristotle illustrates this point in the following passage:

Now such a thing happiness, above all else, is held to be; for this we choose always for itself and never for the sake of something else, but honor, pleasure, reason, and every virtue we choose indeed for themselves (for if nothing resulted from them we should still choose each of them), but we choose them also for the sake of happiness, judging that through them we shall be happy. Happiness, on the other hand, no one chooses for the sake of these, nor, in general for anything other than itself. (Nicomachean Ethics, Book I, Ch. 7, 1097^a36-1097^b7.)

For Aristotle happiness is not a state nor is it an emotion; it is an activity that if achieved becomes a permanent possession of the soul. Aristotle states that in order to understand happiness and wellbeing, we must discern what is the function, or ergon, of human life. A virtue, or arête, is a state of character that assists humans in grasping their function. Rationality is particular to humans, and its possession and active use in conjunction with virtuous activities may lead to a life well lived. The function of human life, then, is to achieve happiness and wellbeing by partaking in virtuous actions. Practical wisdom, or phronēsis, is developed by practicing virtuous activities, and this in turn assists us in understanding the proper comportment in any situation. Human life is composed of internal and external goods. Internal goods are goods of the soul and the body, such as wisdom, health, and strength. The external goods are the goods that exist independent of the soul and body. The external goods are things such as a few good friends, prosperity, and honor. Both the internal and external goods are requisites for the attainment of the good life, and it is through practical wisdom that humans achieve an understanding to what those goods are. Aristotle identifies two kinds of virtues: moral virtues and intellectual virtues. Moral virtues are developed through habit and constant practice in conjunction with rationality that strive for attaining what is moderate in any situation. Practical wisdom, or phronēsis, assists a person in recognizing what is moderate, and that choosing moderation is what assists in the permanent possession of happiness. The intellectual virtues are developed through instruction and are essential for understanding the first principles of the sciences and the metaphysical nature of reality. Aristotle identifies five intellectual virtues, and they are epistēmē, i.e., scientific knowledge; noûs, i.e., intuitive understanding; sophia, i.e., wisdom; phronesis, i.e., practical wisdom; and technē, i.e., crafting knowledge. The possession of the intellectual virtues assists in the comprehension of the three categories of infallible knowledge: theoria, i.e., theoretical knowledge; poiesis, i.e., productive knowledge; and praxis, i.e., practical knowledge. The acquisition of the moral and intellectual virtues are necessary for Aristotle because in order to live a life well lived, one must comprehend both morally correct actions and scientific knowledge that is grasped by rationality. Aristotle’s investigations in the Nicomachean Ethics are directed at uncovering the ways in which eudaimonia is achieved. It must also be stated that the challenging environmental conditions of ancient Greece shaped local and regional attitudes and practices concerning natural resources. Summers were hot and dry, and fresh water was extremely limited, and the collection of fresh water was a difficult and time-consuming chore. It was the job of mostly women and slaves to partake in long daily journeys to collect water from springs. Aristotle and all of the ancient Greeks understood the necessity of the virtue of moderation and implicitly its importance as a central tenet of sustainability and the long-term vitality of the Greek civilization. Concerning the positive impact the Mediterranean climate had upon the wellbeing and the political characteristics of Greek civilization, Aristotle states the following:

Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery. But the Hellenic race, which is situated between them, is likewise intermediate in character, being high-spirited and also intelligent. Hence it continues free, and is the best-governed of any nation, and, if it could be formed into one state, would be able to rule the world. (Politics, Book VI, Ch. 7, 1327^b24-32.)

Moderation and sustainable ways of living were part and parcel of the daily life of the Greeks and all flourishing ancient civilizations. The insights concerning the nature of human action that Aristotle uncovered in the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics are a crucial part of the solutions required for the transition to renewable energy and a sustainable world and those discoveries on the foundations of human nature are extremely relevant in our quest to create a sustainable world in all of its forms because those discoveries reveal the reasons behind human actions which may in turn lead to better solutions that take into account the teleological aspect of human nature.

Ethics and the Sustainable Development Goals

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their accompanying 169 specific targets were accepted and adopted on September 25, 2015, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City (‘A/69/L.85 – Draft outcome document of the United Nations summit for the adoption of the post-2015 development agenda,’ United Nations Sustainable Development Platform, accessed June 17th, 2018, http://www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org.post2015/summit). The attainment of the SDGs will have a transformative effect on wellbeing on a global scale and will help to alleviate some of the unnecessary suffering of hundreds of millions if not billions of people. In order to better grasp the fundamental ethical ways of being and actions that may contribute to attaining the SDGs, it is helpful to present them here.

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (“Sustainable Development Goals,” United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, accessed June 17, 2018, http://www.sustainabledevelopment.un.org).

• 1. No Poverty

• 2. Zero Hunger

• 3. Good Health and Wellbeing

• 4. Quality Education

• 5. Gender Equality

• 6. Clean Water and Sanitation

• 7. Affordable and Clean Energy

• 8. Decent Work and Economic Growth

• 9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure

• 10. Reduced Inequalities

• 11. Sustainable Cities and Communities

• 12. Responsible Consumption and Production

• 13. Climate Action

• 14. Life Below Water

• 15. Life on Land

• 16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions

• 17. Partnerships for the Goals

When considered in relation to Aristotelian ethical theory, it becomes clear that the 17 SDGs are attainable because it is a part of human nature to pursue virtuous goals. Activities that pursue the achievement of the possession of the 17 SDGs are virtuous because the solutions require examinations of human practices that are done in excess and are therefore vices, and those vices or immoral activities must then be redirected toward that which is moderate. If the purpose of human nature is to strive to achieve eudaimonia, and therefore wellbeing, then the collective global allegiance of states and communities are in a way responsible for the creation of programs and infrastructure projects that promote the actualization of the 17 SDGs. Human actions, when conducted in full cognizance of the moral and intellectual virtues, and in conjunction with the 17 SDGs, and with the perfect functioning of the human nervous system which allows for the faculty of rationality, and the positive consequences that arise from their completion, by nature seek that which is moderate. Our purpose-driven lives are made better by pursuing prosperity, and all the external and internal goods, through a state of moderation, by which the vices of excess and deficiency are avoided and by which wellbeing is cultivated and maintained. It makes only common sense that if almost all existing things related to economics and industrialization are subject to some form of taxation, then pollution itself in all of its forms must be priced and taxed too. To develop wellbeing and a sustainable world where happiness applies to all and not to just the few, then the excesses and deficiencies in modern industrialization and capitalism must be addressed, confronted, and changed. To embrace excess and deficiency is to deny the virtue of moderation, and this in turn is a denial of ecological thinking and a possible sustainable world. To act locally and to think globally, with renewable energies, and shared resources and shared knowledge, while embracing moderation and striving for the actualization of the 17 SDGs, is to live a life fully aware of the teleological element of human nature and to use that purpose-driven life to create the best possible chances for the attainment of eudaimonia. Wellbeing and eudaimonia are achieved through moderation and virtuous actions, and ethical theory has been traditionally focused on the actions and intentions of the individual. Our modern environmental crises require us to synthesize and present the results from ethical theories and moral reasoning so that not only individuals but also communities and cities and states initiate the cultivation of the good life through policies and practices on a massive scale. This will insure that all citizens benefit from these actions. The practice of moderation in action and thought will assist in the attainment of eudaimonia and wellbeing because of the continuous engagement in virtuous activities. Individuals, local and central governments, connected inhabitants, universities, and businesses should practice moderation in all of its permutations because by doing so is good in itself; safeguards established habitats, dwellings, and the local environment; and fosters wellbeing by embracing the benefits of clean and healthy places. The elimination of noise, light, air, and water pollution would have a remarkably transformative effect on the inhabitants of any modern city. The actualization of the SDGs is the responsibility of everyone, from individuals to the largest, most powerful organizations and governments. By embracing technological advancements humanity has a great chance of reducing and/or eliminating carbon emissions and creating opportunities that foster wellbeing. Machine learning will allow humanity to reconnect with nature and with themselves; for universal incomes and having all basic services provided for will create possibilities where learning and advancement will be available to all citizens, of any nation. Transitioning to renewable energies will create opportunities for universities and other institutions to power themselves and their neighborhoods. Providing free and supplemental electricity to local area residents will increase wellbeing in developing countries and communities in the sense that local inhabitants will feel connected to the institutions and in the sense that residents will reap the benefits of living in dwellings that are enhanced by electricity and the devices and appliances, i.e., the external goods that contribute to wellbeing. Perhaps when considered in relation to Aristotelian ethics, the current dilemma of global warming is partially rooted in some humans making the mistake in thinking that an excess of external goods directly leads to eudaimonia. Excesses in almost any way are unsustainable for the individual, the community, and the environment and are considered to be vices and obviously are not virtues. A moderate and sufficient amount of external goods is enough for the fostering and preservation of happiness and wellbeing. The reintegration of nature with urban communities through sustainable practices based on conservation and preservation will exponentially increase the wellbeing and happiness of citizens because of the resulting reduced pollution, reduced stress, and reduced crime. Renewable energy projects, combined with universal education, universal healthcare, universal housing, and urban organic farming, will transform societies into groups of connected communities where all basic needs are met, and this is a transformation rooted in the cultivation of wellbeing that creates peace and quiet and promotes ecology and ecological thinking. States and cities that embrace and truly implement practices aimed at the achievement of the 17 SDGs will be known and remembered as pioneers in clean energy, human equality, and postindustrial ecology. The individuals who will be remembered in the coming centuries as heroes will be people that eliminate the inherent flaws of capitalism and industrialization by virtuous actions based on philosophical and ecological thinking. To live sustainably is to practice constantly the virtue of moderation in all daily activities, and doing so in conjunction with the realization of the teleological nature of humanity greatly increases the chances of attaining eudaimonia and the possession of a life well lived. Concerning the development of a city that could be considered enduring and sustainable Aristotle states the following:

We had already said that the city should be open to the land and to the sea, and to the whole country as far as possible. In respect of the place itself our wish would be that its situation should be fortunate in four things. The first, health–this is a necessity: cities which lie towards the east, and are blown upon by winds coming from the east, are the healthiest; next in healthiness are those which are sheltered from the north wind, for they have a milder winter. The site of the city should likewise be convenient both for political administration and for war. With a view to the latter it should afford easy egress to the citizens, and at the same time be inaccessible and difficult of capture to enemies. There should be a natural abundance of springs and fountains in the town, or, if there is a deficiency of them, great reservoirs may be established for the collection of rain-water, such as will not fail when the inhabitants are cut off from the country by war. Special care should be taken of the health of the inhabitants, which will depend chiefly on the healthiness of the locality and of the quarter to which they are exposed, and secondly, on the use of pure water; this latter point is by no means a secondary consideration. For the elements which we use most and oftenest for the support of the body contribute most to health, and among these are water and air. For this reason, in all wise states, if there is a want of pure water, and the supply is not equally good, the drinking water ought to be separated from that which is used for other purposes. (Politics, Book VI, Ch. 11, 1330^a34-1330^b17.)

Life is the purpose-driven pursuit of the good. If we are able to discover through scientific research and philosophical investigations that the possibility of a sustainable world hinges on good, virtuous actions that are based on moderation, then it may be said that the highest good, i.e., happiness or wellbeing, is that which humans must strive most to cultivate. All of our actions are ultimately striving toward the acquisition of wellbeing, and therefore philosophical thinking and an awareness of the inherent teleological nature of human life will assist in the realization that the negative aspects of industrialization must be corrected with haste and with permanence. If eudaimonia is indeed the highest good, is achieved by living the good life, and is the end of all pursuits, then actions, ideas, and policies that foster its development and protection are the best things to strive toward. Like eudaimonia and wellbeing, sustainability is a type of action, or many actions, that must be fostered and cultivated through virtuous and correct thoughts and activities. Sustainability and its positive consequences cultivate eudaimonia and wellbeing by rethinking and retooling ways of living and industrialization that are detrimental to our environment. The cultivation of eudaimonia and wellbeing are in many ways dependent upon the state of the environment. As the world becomes more sustainable, it also will become much cleaner, which will benefit the health of all humans and all living beings on Earth, and those health benefits and sustainable practices will in turn positively affect the wellbeing of all people, everywhere. The retooling of our transportation infrastructure and all other industries from being based on fossil fuels to sustainable, clean energy will require much effort and investment. This great, necessary retooling will be initiated by visionaries and risk-takers that understand that sustainability and wellbeing are greater motives for action when compared to all things, yet especially when compared to dirty and ethically questionable profiteering. What humanity must embrace in the twenty-first century is a redefined concept of prosperity that is aware of and cares for the Whole. Previous to the coming halt to humanity’s immersion in unethical economic models and methods of industrialization that allow extreme pollution and resource depletion, it will be required that all systems, all consequences of industrialization, and all purpose-driven activities contain elements of ecological and sustainable first principles that are defined, defended, and engaged in for the wellbeing of current and future generations. The 17 SDGs are an excellent starting points for action. The virtuous actions required for their ultimate implementation and normalization overlap into different SDGs and seek to regain the ecological balance that we have lost.

Conclusion

Even in consideration of the Second Law of Thermodynamics and the inherent universal tendency toward disorder and entropy (See The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, volume 1, s.v. ‘Entropy.’), it must be said that our actions and our thoughts are fully ordered by the cognition and activity of the faculty of rationality which allows us to create logical systems and ordered lives that are based on happiness, wellbeing, and organic and sustainable ways of living. To live simply, quietly, without too much competition, and locally, organically, socially connected to neighbors and respective communities through shared resources and extensive public transportation services, with universal healthcare within a safe region, is to experience community living how it should be, that is, based on a prosperity that is grounded in the Whole. The first four SDGs can be achieved on a global scale with great effort and dedication and by redirections of wealth and resources. These redirections must occur locally, nationally, and internationally. Great advancements toward the attainment of the SDGs could be initiated by the redirection of worldwide military budgets into renewable energy infrastructure projects and local organic farming initiatives. A world in which all inhabitants have access to clean food and water, universal healthcare and education, and sustainable housing is a world in which equality and peace flourish, and militaries exist yet in diminished capacities such as for self-defense and disaster rescue situations. The remaining SDGs can be achieved simultaneously through virtuous activities and policies that originate from the first four. Technology and machine learning will initiate solutions on an exponential scale and will create the machines that will assist us in reclaiming a pollution-free Earth. The ethical algorithms that dictate the boundaries of the actions of the thinking machines will be based on the ecological principles of conservation, preservation, peace, and sustainability. Clearly defined first principles of a science must be established and agreed upon before any rational inquiry can commence within that science. If local communities and state governments adopt the 17 SDGs as the first principles or starting points upon which their economic policies were based, then the world would prosper and initiate a recovery from centuries of blatant pollution and industrialization. Sustainable policies and practices based on wellbeing will insure the long-term stability and recovery period necessary for the Earth and all of its inhabitants. The redirection of funds for activities and profits related to fossil fuels and toward projects that foster wellbeing and green prosperity will create sustainable communities around the world. To have individuals, community members, and global citizens to embrace all of the 17 SDGs is to accept certain foundational beliefs and scientific truths about the world. One of those truths is that capitalism and industrialization contain fundamental flaws that are detrimental to humanity and the Earth. And it must also be said that the secondary and tertiary actions and activities that create pollution are also flawed, because if the greatest good is happiness, and it is what we are all seeking, then doing things that are destructive and harmful are diametrically opposed to that which is virtuous and good. While humanity embraces technology in order to assist with the cultivation of wellbeing, it is equally crucial to look deep into the past, to rediscover forgotten sustainable practices and ethical theories that offer explanatory clues concerning how to live correctly, which in turn may assist in the resolution of the many economic, philosophical, and scientific puzzles that exist within this exceptionally complex world. It seems as if the solutions to global warming are as complex as the problems themselves. When all world governments and corporations and individuals embrace wellbeing and sustainability as the foundational motives for actions and activities, then the environment will start to heal; peace, health, and happiness will blossom; virtuous, green prosperity will replace the flawed, selfish models of capitalism and globalization; and humanity as a whole will become smarter, more ethical, and more aware of the virtuous activities that lead to a life well lived. The recognition and elimination of the mistakes and flaws in current accepted industrial practices will permit the commencement of a unified quest toward perfection, and this quest is something good, ethical, and worthy of pursuit.