Synonyms

Educational games; Games and learning

Definition

At a simple level, games-based learning can be defined as “learning that is facilitated by the use of a game.” This can be at any academic level from preschool through to lifelong learning, from simple memorization and recall to high level learning outcomes such as evaluation or creativity. The use of the game can be intrinsic or supplemental, played face-to-face with physical objects or online, with a computer. Where the difficulty arises is in the exact definition of the term “game,” because there is not a single accepted classification and definitions depend on the disciplinary background of those who create them.

One way of defining games is to consider the characteristics that games exhibit. While there is no core set of characteristics that defines all games, different types of games exhibit different sets of characteristics, so that games are characterized by “family resemblances” (Wittgenstein 1976) rather than a single definitive list.

Characteristics that are commonly used to define games include:

  • Competition. The aim of the game is to win by achieving a better result than one or more other players or by achieving the game’s objectives.

  • Challenge. The game is non-trivial to take part in and complete and goals require effort to achieve. Types of challenge include physical, mental or social.

  • Exploration. The game takes place in a simulated environment (that can be in the real world, a virtual world or purely imaginary) that can be explored by the player.

  • Fantasy. The game is based around a fictional (or non-real) plot and narrative.

  • Goals. Provision of explicit aims and objectives that are achieved in order to progress in the game.

  • Interaction. Players can influence the state of the game by taking action and, in turn, the game provides feedback to players on their actions.

  • Outcomes. A way for the players to measure their progress against the game goals or against the achievements of other players (e.g., scoring).

  • People. Other players who take part in the game, simultaneously or by taking turns, competitively or in collaboration.

  • Rules. A set of instructions on the limits or constraints of the game and how it should be played.

  • Safety. The game is a consequence-free environment in which the players can experiment and make mistakes, where the outcomes of the game have no penalties or rewards in the real world.

The characteristics described here can all, to some degree, be objectively considered as intrinsic to a particular game. The notion of “fun” is also commonly used to define games, but this is more problematic in that fun is subjective in a player’s experience of the game and not in the game itself.

As well as games, there are several game-like activities that are often considered in relation to games-based learning and that share many characteristics of games. These include simulations, which attempt to model an environment with a high degree of realism; virtual worlds that provide vast interactive and explorative multi-user spaces; role play activities where imaginary situations allow participants to experience the perspective of another person; puzzles, which typically do not provide interaction and feedback; and stories, which again tend to be linear and non-interactive.

Theoretical Background

There is a great deal of commonality between the characteristics of games and the characteristics of effective learning experiences. Effective learning should be challenging, but achievable, and engage the learners through gradually increasing levels of difficulty, while the provision of clear and explicit goals stimulates motivation and transparency, and measurable outcomes allow learners to evaluate their progressions. While rules can help guide and scaffold learners through learning activities, strict adherence can also stifle creativity. While some rules, particularly those pertaining to conduct or appropriate behavior, may be nonnegotiable, others have the scope to be more flexible, enabling learners to take greater control over, and responsibility for, their own learning.

Interaction is also an essential component of learning as it provides a way for learners to identify errors in their thinking and modify their understandings – the provision of feedback is a key part of the learning process. Learning from other people through mentoring, discussion and group work, and providing learners with the opportunity to explore and investigate a situation or subject to an appropriate level and depth are also crucial for stimulating curiosity and supporting effective learning. The provision of a safe environment for learning, in which students can learn from their mistakes in a way that allows them to transfer their learning to real contexts, is also an important element of learning.

An aspect that is less clear in relation to games-based learning is the role of competition. While it may be motivational for many learners, it may put unnecessary pressure on others and may act as a demotivational factor for some students who feel that they cannot compete, and can also shift the focus of a game from learning to winning. Collaboration may be preferable to competition in many learning situations, and competition in games can be used to support this, for example when it is between groups rather than individuals. The appropriate application of fantasy may also be problematic, while possibly appropriate for younger learners, certain genres of fantasy can be gender-specific and exclusive, and a focus on fictional elements such as cases or scenarios may be more appropriate.

The rationale for the use of games in learning is commonly based around the assumption that “games motivate learners”; however, while this may be true of many learners, it is certainly not true of all. Adults in particular – who tend to be more focused and strategic in their learning – may see the idea of learning with games as inappropriate, frivolous, or a waste of time, and will need to be convinced of the pedagogic benefits of games-based learning before engaging. While motivation alone cannot justify the use of games in learning, the levels of engagement and flow (Csikszentmihalyi 2002) that games can induce can positively effect the learning process.

There are also sound pedagogic reasons for the use of games for learning. Beyond simply providing a more engaging environment for the teaching and testing of facts through repetition and practice, games-based learning links to a number of key learning and teaching theories that help to provide a justification for the use of games in a wider range of learning contexts including the application of skills, strategy development, analysis of information, evaluation of situations, changing attitudes, and creation of knowledge.

Games can be used in a variety of learning situations, from behavior modification and rote learning to supporting deep learning in complex domains. There are many theories that support the use of games for learning and the three that follows do not aim to provide a complete picture but to show examples of the ways in which game playing shows clear parallels with some of the contemporary theories of learning and teaching.

  • Learning by doing. The Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb 1984) describes a circular learning process of experience, reflection, application of theory, and planning the next experience. Games can provide a context for this cycle of action and reflection but, since many entertainment games are not naturally reflective in nature, reflective or debriefing activities must be explicitly integrated. One of the benefits of digital games is the ability of the computer to provide the interaction and feedback that is crucial to the experiential learning cycle. Gee (2003) argues that this cycle is integral to computer games because learners must experience the game environment, reflect on the situation and form hypotheses, take action and investigate the virtual world to see what effect their action had, and plan their next moves.

  • Learning with others. Students learn by working together, sharing and clarifying ideas and opinions, and developing communication skills. Working collaboratively enables learners to work to their strengths, develop creative and critical skills, validate their ideas, and appreciate a range of perspectives. While not all games facilitate multiple players or collaboration, many types have the potential to do so. Participating in affinity around games provides a way of building relationships and learning with others (Gee 2003).

  • Learning through problem solving. This involves small groups of learners working together to tackle real-life, cross-disciplinary problems, where the teacher assumes the role of facilitator rather than subject expert and resources are made available to the students but information on how to tackle the problem itself is not provided. In essence, many types of games are based around these types of open-ended collaborative problems.

While there are clear pedagogic benefits of games-based learning, it is not without its negative side. A practical issue, particularly relevant to computer games, is how to design, develop, and test the game to be used, which can be labor intensive, time-consuming, and expensive. Availability of off-the-shelf games is limited, and they may require modification or customization. Games may not always be practical in traditional teaching settings because of environmental or time constraints, and it may be difficult to align games-based learning objectives with set curriculum. There are also educational issues such as ensuring transfer of learning from the game to real life, the acceptability of games with learners, and the time spent learning the game itself rather than learning from it. Other disadvantages that have been associated with computer games–based learning include that they can be gender-specific and often have violent or stereotypical characters, and may lead to aggressive, addictive, or antisocial behaviors.

Important Scientific Research and Open Questions

While the use of games in education is not new, there is still a dearth of robust evidence as to their effectiveness for enhancing learning. Measuring the impact of games for learning is not easy to do in a rigorous way, particularly as learning from games goes far beyond recall and involves higher-level cognitive skills that are more difficult to test. Many studies are small, short-term, and anecdotal, and while there is a strong theoretical rationale for the use of games in learning, empirical evidence as to their benefits – in a range of teaching and learning situations – is limited. While games-based learning is not new, it is still relatively uncommon as a teaching technique, particularly in instances that go beyond simple drill-and-practice. The effects of novelty with learners of this way of teaching are also not fully understood and worthy of further study.

The area of digital games for learning is one in which interest has been growing in recent years; the pace of technological change is fast and this offers new opportunities for research. Emerging areas of interest at the time of writing include alternate reality games (e.g., Moseley et al. 2009), the use of virtual worlds (e.g., Hollins and Robbins 2008), and mobile and location-aware games (e.g., Facer et al. 2004).

The concept of “digital natives” (Prensky 2006) hypothesizes that exposure to technology from an early age has changed the way in which young people acquire and assimilate information, and is commonly used as a rationale for the use of games, particularly computer games for learning. However, this notion is controversial and more recent research has indicated that while many young people today are more confident with technology, they are not necessarily any more critical or analytical and that there is little evidence for generationally different learning styles. The impact of technology on learning and the use of games in this context is altogether more complex and requires further research.

Cross-References

Collaborative Learning

Constructivism

Experiential Learning

Learning with Games

Problem-Based Learning