1 Introduction

Faba bean (Vicia faba, L.) is a multi-purpose crop, since it has a beneficial role in life of human, animals, and even for microorganisms. Faba bean is used as a source of protein in human diets, as fodder crop for animals, and for its excellent ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Faba bean seed has been regarded as a meat extender or substitute due to its high protein content ranging from 20 to 41% with valuable mineral micronutrients (Crepona et al. 2010). It is relatively high in lysine, which is an essential amino acid in human and monogastric diets (Khazaei et al. 2019). Owing to the ability of symbiotic N2 fixation, faba bean cultivation increases the sustainability of cropping systems by adding nitrogen to the soil and therefore reducing the consumption of fossil fuel energy required for manufacturing nitrogen fertilizers (Jensen et al. 2010) with improving soil fertility. Also, faba bean plays a crucial role in crop rotation by breaking the disease cycles of various pathogens and pets (Nebiyu et al. 2016; Rose et al. 2016).

The elimination or reduction of weed seeds present as soil seed bank is an important weed control strategy in particularly for parasitic weeds. It is well known that broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forsk.) is a serious parasitic weed which causes distinctive losses in faba bean productivity all over the world (Ennami et al. 2020; Fernández–Aparicio et al. 2016). In several situations, no yield can be obtained because of high infestation of broomrape impeding faba bean cultivation. Thus, at farms highly infested with broomrape, farmers are obligated to forgo the cultivation of faba bean. Despite the significance of faba bean as a legume crop, its growth and development are restrained in several cultivated areas due to the existence of broomrape causing low yield and returns (Amri et al. 2019; Joel et al. 2007). The individual application of cultural or chemical practices for broomrape control have been exploited; however, the desired success was not enough (Rubiales 2014). Herein, the integration among these techniques should be exploited.

The first step for planning weed control program is choosing and cultivation the broomrape-tolerant cultivars. Resistant cultivars can grow satisfactorily and yield better in infested fields, thus alleviating the hazards of Orobanche attacks. Several cultivars of faba bean with varying degree of resistance to Orobanche species have been raised by plant breeders (Abbes et al. 2020; Amri et al. 2019). Resistant of faba bean cultivars to broomrape might be attributed to the callose sedimentation in the cortex cellular walls of the host and in contact with the scrounger tissues, as well as lignification of pericycle and endodermal tissues (Pérez–de–Luque et al. 2007).

The next step in effective programs to control broomrape weed is the application of treatments that reduce the soil seed bank by damaging broomrape seeds in the soil. In this regard, and along with cultivation the broomrape-tolerant cultivars, applicable field practices should be implemented. Herein, the properties of compost and biochar could be utilized and exploited; however, their importance in controlling broomrape is not well known. Commonly, application of compost to soils increased the microbial biomass activity, soil respiration, and the activity of various enzymes (Zhen et al. 2014). These changes in soil environment could affect nutrient availability to plants and nutrient movement in soils (Charles et al. 2017). Based on the type of compost, it can buffer soil pH (Butler et al. 2008). In this respect, an increase of soil pH following addition of compost from poultry litter is mainly due to addition of basic cations (K, Ca and Mg), ammonification, and production of NH3 during decomposition of the added compost (Mandal et al. 2013). Unlike, soil pH can also decrease after application of compost from rice straw mixed with agroindustrial wastes due to the release of H+ ions via nitrification and/or the production of organic acids during decomposition (Bolan and Hedley 2003; Rashad et al. 2011). Soil properties (water holding capacity, organic matter, aeration, pH value, cationic exchange capacity, and soil aggregation) have been improved by application of biochar into the soil (Manirakiza and Şeker 2020). Due to its large surface area, charged surface, and functional groups, biochar is of great potential to adsorb organic compounds reducing their bioavailability (Nartey and Zhao 2014).

It was discovered previously that parasitic plants, i.e., Orobanche spp., sense their host plant through the recognition of secondary metabolites released by its roots (Yoder 1999). Moreover, parasitic seeds germinate only when they receive chemical signals released from potential host roots (Joel et al. 2007). Germination of Orobanche spp. seeds are usually stimulated by strigolactone compounds (Bouwmeester et al. 2003).

Because of their physical and chemical properties, biochar or compost application to the soil as robust adsorbents may have remarkable impacts on the released root exudates of faba bean. As mentioned in literatures, due to certain phenotypic mechanisms (negative effect of natural stimulant broomrape seed germination and radical deformation), compost tea application showed adverse impact on broomrape seed germination, prevention of radical penetration inside the host roots, parasite yield reduction, and thus increasing the growth and vitality of faba bean (El–Halmouch et al. 2013).

Limited information is available on the effect of biochar, and compost in changing the stimulating effect of faba bean root exudates around the root zone to be unfavorable for growth and development of the broomrape. Our hypothesis of the current work is that broomrape infestation impacts could be reduced by application of biochar or compost in soil rhizosphere around root system. Hence, this preliminary study investigates the relative efficiency of biochar and compost as means of broomrape weed control at farm level for achieving sustainable productivity of faba bean.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Location

A 2-year field trial was undertaken in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 winter seasons at El Nubaria experimental farm, National Research Centre, Egypt. The soil at the trial site was sandy and its physicochemical properties, estimated by the method of Page et al. (1982), are shown in Table 1. According to US Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1999), the soil is classified in the order Aridisol and suborder Durids. Maize was grown as the preceding crop in the first and second seasons.

Table 1 Physicochemical properties of the experimental soil of the experimental station of agricultural production and research station, El Nubaria, El Beheira Governorate, Egypt
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2.2 Procedures and Treatments

The experiment consisted of four treatments for broomrape control (biochar, compost, glyphosate-isopropylammonium, and unweeded (control)) applied with two faba bean cultivars, i.e., Misr–3 (tolerant) and Sakha–1 (less tolerant). During soil preparation, single super phosphate was applied (15.5% P2O5), 360 kg ha−1. Biochar and compost were added as a spot placement at a rate of 40 and 50 g hill−1, respectively (these amounts calculated based on the size of hole occupied by biochar or compost instead of the removed soil before planting), after soil preparation (Fig. 1), and then soil was irrigated. Biochar and compost were prepared from dry plant wastes of casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) and camphor (Eucalyptus sideroxylon) trees, respectively. According to Yu et al. (2013), the biochar was produced by heating air dried tree branch clippings using slow pyrolysis process for 2 h (about 350–420 °C). After cooling, the produced biochar was passed through a 2-mm sieve. The compost was prepared using the Indore method (Inckel et al. 2005). Briefly, the alternative layers of organic mixtures (90% camphor trees residues + 10% farmyard manure) were used to make the compost pile (1.25 × 2.5 × 0.75 m3 in size). A plastic sheet was used to cover the ground before making the pile to keep up the leaching nutrients solution after watering. Also, the pile was covered by plastic sheet to keep up the moisture and to help in the decomposition process by increasing temperature. This process took approximately 4 months. According to Page et al. (1982), some chemical properties of used biochar and compost are estimated as shown in Table 2. Also, four faba bean plants from each experimental unit were thoroughly uprooted to obtain samples of the soil media substances around root zone. In these samples, some properties of biochar and compost were estimated comparing to untreated soil after harvest (Table 3).

Fig. 1
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Spot placement of biochar/compost before faba bean sowing

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Table 2 Some chemical properties of applied biochar and compost
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Table 3 Bulk density (BD), water holding capacity (WHC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), acidity (pH), and electric conductivity (EC) of applied biochar and compost as comparing to untreated soil
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On November 17, 2015/2016, and November 27, 2016/2017, seasons (10 days after soil irrigation), Rhizobium-inoculated faba bean seeds were sown (3–4 seeds per hill), with 0.25-m space on the two sides of the ridge, and then soil was irrigated. At 35 days after sowing (DAS), plants were hand hoed and thinned, leaving two plants per hill. Glyphosate-isopropylammonium, roundup 48% WSC (isopropylammonium N–(phosphonomethyl)glycinate) was applied thrice during faba bean flowering stages (60, 75, and 90 DAS, 0.18 L ha−1). For all experimental treatments, ammonium nitrate (33.5% N) at a rate of 90 kg ha−1 was divided into two equal parts and applied 35 and 50 DAS. During growth stages, plants were watered through drip irrigation system using emitters of 1.5 L h−1 capacity.

2.3 Experimental Design

The trial design was a strip-plot in completely randomized block arrangement in six replications and applying the model presented in Formula 1 (Casella 2008). Cultivars occupied the vertical main plots as well as broomrape control treatments distributed in horizontal ones. The plot size was 11.40 m2, comprising five furrows with a 3.5-m length and 0.65-m width.

$$ {\mathrm{Y}}_{ij k}=\upmu +{\uptau}_i+{\upbeta}_j+{\left(\upbeta \uptau \right)}_{ij}+{\upgamma}_k+{\left(\upbeta \upgamma \right)}_{jk}+{\left(\uptau \upgamma \right)}_{ik}+{\left(\upbeta \uptau \upgamma \right)}_{ij k}+{\upvarepsilon}_{ij k} $$
(1)

where,

Yijk is response, μ is overall mean effect, τ is the treatment, β and γ are the blocks, and βj ∼ N(0, σ2β), γk ∼ N(0, σ2γ), εijk ∼ N(0, σ2ε), all independent {Assuming that the block factor to be random and the other factors to be fixed; independence between all errors}.

2.4 Assessments

2.4.1 Broomrape Traits

At 105 DAS, a number of broomrape shoots and infected faba bean plants plot−1 were counted. Also, at harvest, broomrape shoots were uprooted, air dried for 10 days, and oven-dried for 24 h at 80 °C up to a constant weight for estimating the total biomass expressed in dry weight plot−1.

2.4.2 Crop Traits

At harvest (on April 24 and April 27 in the first and second seasons, respectively), 10 faba bean plants were randomly chosen and uprooted from each plot to estimate plant dry weight and weight of 100 seeds. Moreover, whole plants of the plot were harvested to estimate seed yield ha−1. According to AOAC (2012), total nitrogen was determined in seeds using the modified micro Kjeldahl method. Crude protein content was calculated by multiplying the total nitrogen by 6.25.

2.5 Regression Analysis

Regression analysis between faba bean seed yield ha−1 (dependent variable) and each of number and dry mass of broomrape shoots and number of infected faba bean plants plot−1 (independent variables) was derived as explained by Draper and Smith (1998).

2.6 Statistical Analysis

The data obtained were subjected to homogeneity test prior to analysis of variance (ANOVA). The outputs proved that the homogeneity and normality of the data are satisfied for running further ANOVA. Thus, data of each season were undergone to ANOVA according to Casella (2008), using Costat software program, Version 6.303, 2004. At p ≤ 0.05 level of probability, Duncan’s multiple range test (alphabetical lowercase letters) was used for distinguishing among the treatment means.

3 Results

3.1 Effect of Cultivar and Weed Control Treatment on Broomrape

Results in Table 4 showed the remarkable variation between the two tested cultivars of faba bean Misr–3 and Sakha–1 in their performance against broomrape weed in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons. Misr–3 showed a significant advantage over Sakha–1 in confronting the broomrape weed. In this respect, number of broomrape shoots plot−1 reduced by 68.1% in 2015/16 season with Misr–3 compared to Sakha–1. Moreover, dry weight of broomrape shoots plot−1 and number of infected plants plot−1 in Misr–3 cultivar were lesser by 57.2 and 35.8% as well as 72.1 and 38.6% than Sakha–1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons, respectively.

Table 4 Number and weight of emerged broomrape shoots and number of broomrape-infected faba bean plants as influenced by cultivar and broomrape control treatment in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons
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ANOVA exhibited significant differences among various broomrape weed control treatments in number and dry weight of broomrape shoots as well as number of infected faba bean plants plot−1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons (Table 4). Herein, the highly infestation of broomrape appeared in control treatment (unweeded). Contrarily, treated plots showed reduction in broomrape abundance than untreated one. Glyphosate effect statistically equaled biochar effect on number of emerged broomrape shoots in both seasons and infected faba bean plants plot−1 in 2016/17 one. Also, compost effect was as similar as glyphosate for dry weight of broomrape shoots in 2016/2017 season and number of infected faba bean plants plot−1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017. In both seasons, similar impacts of biochar and compost on all broomrape traits were obtained.

Considerable impact of the interaction between cultivars and broomrape control treatments was obtained (Table 4). It should be noted that the maximum values of broomrape shoots number and dry weight and number of infected faba bean plants were recorded in unweeded plots that involved Sakha–1 plants. Unlike, reductions in such studied traits were achieved due to treating both of Misr–3 and Sakha–1 plants with tested treatments, i.e., glyphosate, compost, or biochar. Glyphosate application as a common practice recorded the best controlling of broomrape in faba bean whether with Misr–3 or Sakha–1 cultivar. By and large, treating Misr–3 plants by glyphosate, compost, or biochar protected them from broomrape attacking since low values of number and dry weight of broomrape shoots plot−1 as well as number of infected faba bean plants plot−1 were noticed (Table 4).

3.2 Effect of Cultivar and Weed Control Treatment on Faba Bean

Results in Table 5 clarify the remarkable disparities between Misr–3 and Sakha–1 in dry weight plant−1 and seed yield ha−1, while weight of 100 seeds was not affected. Misr–3 surpassed Sakha–1 by 17.6 and 20.7% for dry weight plant−1 as well as 20.8 and 15.8% for seed yield ha−1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017.

Table 5 Dry weight plant−1, weight of 100 seeds, and seed yield of faba bean as influenced by cultivar and broomrape control treatment in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons
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All weed control treatments surpassed the control (unweeded) in dry weight plant−1 and seed yield ha−1 of faba bean in both growing seasons. Spot placement of biochar was the distinctive pattern for enhancing dry weight plant−1 and seed yield ha−1 (Table 5). Biochar treatment statistically leveled with glyphosate and compost (for dry weight plant−1) and with glyphosate (for seed yield ha−1) in both seasons.

Despite Misr–3 produced greater yield than Sakha–1 under broomrape infestation (unweeded), the disparity was not significant as presented in Table 5. On the contrary, controlling broomrape using compost, biochar, or glyphosate in Misr–3 plots along with using biochar in Sakha–1 plots recorded the maximum increases in dry weight plant−1. Application of any weeded pattern, i.e., compost, biochar, or glyphosate, in each of Misr–3 or Sakha–1 plots gave similar seed yields ha−1 in the first season. However, planting Misr–3 either with biochar or glyphosate as well as Sakha–1 with glyphosate were the remarkable combinations for increasing seed yield ha−1 in the second season.

Regarding the seed quality, the illustrated result in Fig. 2 clarified that Misr–3 seeds had protein content as similar Sakha–1 seeds. Seed protein content significantly influenced by broomrape control treatments (Fig. 3) and their interaction with faba bean cultivars (Fig. 4). In this context, the maximum values of protein content were recorded with compost and biochar in both 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons, in addition to glyphosate in 2016/2017 season. In 2015/2016 season, the interactions of Misr–3 x compost or biochar and Sakha–1 x compost showed the highest protein content. Moreover, Misr–3 x biochar or glyphosate and Sakha–1 x compost were the effective combinations for increasing protein content in 2016/2017 season.

Fig. 2
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Seed protein content of faba bean as influenced by cultivar in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons

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Fig. 3
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Seed protein content of faba bean as influenced by broomrape control treatment in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons. Vertical bars represent means ± standard error (p ≤ 0.05). Columns marked by various letters are significantly different

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Fig. 4
figure 4

Seed protein content of faba bean as influenced by cultivar x broomrape control treatment in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons. Vertical bars represent means ± standard error (p ≤ 0.05). Columns marked by various letters are significantly different

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3.3 Regression Analysis

By studying the simple regression relationships and computing coefficient of determination (R2) between faba bean seed yield, as a dependent variable, and each of number and dry weight of broomrape shoots as well as number of infected faba bean plants plot−1, as independent variables, it is shown that the suitable mathematical uniform is the logarithmic relation (Figs. 5, 6, and 7). According to regression equations, there is a significant and negative relation between faba bean seed yield either with number and dry weight of broomrape shoots or number of infected faba bean plants plot−1. From R2 values, it is observed that dry weight of broomrape shoots plot−1 parameter is more effective in exhibiting changes in seed yield, since 72.9% of these changes were attributed to such parameter. Moreover, regression equations are forecasting that the higher the number and dry weight of broomrape shoots and number of infected faba bean plants plot−1 increase by 1.0%, the higher the seed yield decreases by 0.63, 0.54, and 0.48, respectively.

Fig. 5
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Regression relationship between faba bean seed yield and broomrape shoots number plot−1

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Fig. 6
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Regression relationship between faba bean seed yield and broomrape shoots dry weight plot−1

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Fig. 7
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Regression relationship between faba bean seed yield and number of broomrape-infected plants plot−1

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4 Discussion

Regarding the importance of genetic variation of faba bean and occurrence of broomrape weed, the results showed less abundance of broomrape shoots associated Misr–3 cultivar compared to Sakha–1. The level of tolerance of Misr–3 cultivar to broomrape is expressed through low number and dry mass of broomrape shoots and number of infected faba bean plants (Table 4). Such finding refers to that Misr–3 is more tolerant to broomrape infection than Sakha–1. Several safeguard dynamics have been disclosed in plants resistant to broomrape aggression, fundamentally encompassing cellular wall strengthening, production of toxic compounds (Pérez–De–Luque et al. 2006a, 2007), and sealing of vascular tissues (Pérez–de–Luque et al. 2006b). Recently, in some faba bean strains, it has been reported that the resistance is relying on low induction of Orobanche seed germination due to low production of germination stimulants secreted by host root (Trabelsi et al. 2016, 2017). Genetic variation for the induction of broomrape germination has also been described in tomato that might be explained both by the presence of germination inhibitors (El–Halmouch et al. 2006) or by reduced exudation of strigolactones (Dor et al. 2010). Relative weakness in Orobanche growth observed on the roots of tolerant cultivar associated low invertase activity in Orobanche, low osmotic pressure of the infected root tissues, and reduction in nitrogen (Abbes et al. 2009). Furthermore, due to genetic variation and broomrape tolerance degree, distinctive differences between Misr–3 and Sakha–1 cultivars in dry matter production and seed yield, with superiority of Misr–3, were obtained (Table 5). Genotypic variations in broomrape tolerance and seed yield potentiality among faba bean cultivars were reported by Fernández–Aparicio et al. (2014) and Trabelsi et al. (2015).

As observed from the data, it was found that there were acceptable levels of broomrape control as a result of the applied different practices compared to the unweeded (Table 4). Because glyphosate herbicide can move through the host phloem to reach root-attached broomrape tubercles and kill them, the low occurrence of broomrape expressed in reduced number and dry mass of broomrape shoots and number of infected faba bean plants plot−1 was obtained (Table 4). Since the activity of the 5-enolpyruvylshikimic acid-3-phosphate synthase enzyme, needed for the aromatic amino acids makeup, is inhibited by glyphosate herbicide (Gomes et al. 2014) impeding the biosynthesis of proteins, auxins, and other vital compounds (Moorman et al. 1992), a better control of broomrape has occurred (Table 4). Consequently, dry weight plant−1 and seed yield were improved (Table 5).

Spot placement of biochar or compost as natural sources showed significant control of broomrape, since the broomrape number and dry weight and number of infected faba bean plants plot−1 diminished (Table 4). The properties of biochar or compost may play a dynamic role in this respect. As compared to the untreated soil cultivated by faba bean plants, biochar or compost exhibited significant differences in bulk density, water holding capacity, cation exchange capacity, and electric conductivity (Table 3). In this context, germination of root parasitic weed seeds promoted by stimulants emancipated into the soil medium by the host plant roots represents one model of underground plant–plant interference stimulated by decoding molecules (Yoneyama et al. 2010). Confusion of any action with parasite–host relation, such as adsorption of the exudates, or an alternation in exudates produced by the host, could affect parasitic weed seed germination and, hence, the ferocity of infection. Accordingly, adding biochar or compost as spot placement, to be surrounding crop root, may represent a barrier handicapping the accession of faba bean root stimulant to broomrape seeds preventing their germination. Since each of biochar or compost has high surface area and adsorption ability (Kasozi et al. 2010), they have the potentiality to control the released root exudates. Also, application of biochar or compost could change the rhizosphere environment to be unsuitable for broomrape seed germination or even causing damage to germinated seeds. Herein, since compost and biochar had lower bulk density and higher capacities of water holding and cation exchange than untreated soil (Table 3), they could alter the root milieu. Biochar prepared from various sources had pH of 8.2–13.0 (Jha et al. 2010) and phenols (DeLuca et al. 2006). Significant effects because of biochar applications were obtained on soil physicochemical properties such as increase in soil pH, soil aeration, and water retention capacity (Laird et al. 2010; Ouyang et al. 2014). Since toxicity of biological decomposition products is known to take place during compost genesis (Barker and Bryson 2002), broomrape seeds viability was reduced to 2% in soil amended with compost (Abu–Irmaileh and Abu–Rayyan 2006). Elevating heat and producing toxic compounds, associating the fermentation process of various organo-materials, can diminish seed viability of several species (Simpson 1986). Abu–Rayyan and Abu–Irmaileh (2004) found that compost can reduce the viability of broomrape seeds.

Our findings also revealed that improvements in faba bean biomass expressed in dry weight plant−1 and seed yield ha−1 as well as protein content were more evident with application of biochar emulating glyphosate. In this respect, biochar can hold nutrients and water due to its high surface area and porosity, in addition to providing a growth-stimulating medium for advantageous microorganisms (Glaser et al. 2002; Lehmann and Rondon 2006; Warnock et al. 2007); thus, the enhancement in crop yield can be achieved. The beneficial role of biochar on plant growth with increasing yield has been reported (Lehmann and Joseph 2009). Both biological nitrogen fixation and beneficial mycorrhizal relationships in common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) were enhanced by biochar applications (Rondon et al. 2007; Warnock et al. 2007). Because of higher cation exchange capacity of biochar or compost (438.2 and 530.4%) as well as water holding capacity (13.1 and 16.6 times) than the untreated soil (Table 3), greater nutrient retention capability could be occurred (Warnock et al. 2007). The conservation practices based on the use of compost had a beneficial effect on growth, diversity, and activity of diverse groups of rhizospheric microorganisms that promote plant growth (Gosling et al. 2006). Also, as organic amendment to soil, compost application caused improvement of soil organic matter content, soil water holding capacity, and nutrient availability to plant and increment in soil microbial population (Lim et al. 2018). Adekiya et al. (2019) found a significant effect on leaf N, P, K, Ca, and Mg uptake by crop plants after biochar and poultry manure additions. An improved crop yield following enhanced soil fertility was evidenced in the compost and biochar amended soils (Agegnehu et al. 2016; Doan et al. 2015).

Under broomrape infestation, Sakha–1 was less tolerant to broomrape than Misr–3. Self-defense mode of cultivar against broomrape may not be enough particularly with highly infested conditions. Therefore, the fierce attacks of broomrape should be faced by implementation of the effective methods of control along with the cultivar used. Herein, Misr–3 cultivar exhibited more stability against broomrape with relative biomass improvement under weeded practices, i.e., glyphosate, compost, or biochar.

Regression analysis proved that estimation of broomrape shoots dry weight is more indicative than broomrape shoots number and number of infected faba bean plants in broomrape–faba bean interaction. Thus, the practice that causes reduction in broomrape biomass is so significant for protecting faba bean plants from broomrape attacks. Herein, planting cultivar that may be infected by broomrape, but has defense mechanisms that suppress the development of attached broomrape shoots, is considered a distinct tool in broomrape management. Besides, lowering broomrape shoots’ number and dry weight as well as number of infected faba bean plants using applicable pattern, i.e., biochar or compost, is significant too.

5 Conclusions

The current study is one of the first attempts to test, in field, the potentiality of biochar and compost in reducing broomrape attacks against faba bean plants. Not only depressive impact against broomrape was achieved, but also economic yield and protein content of faba bean was sustained, emphasizing the potent effect of spot placement of biochar or compost for faba bean sustainability in broomrape infested areas. With cultivating the most broomrape-tolerant cultivars, i.e., Misr–3, biochar or compost could present a modern environmentally safe manner to manage broomrape, and hence sustaining the productivity of faba bean. However, more investigations related to biochar and compost mechanisms against broomrape germination and its tubercles development are required. Moreover, plant breeders should focus on the genes which are related to defense mechanisms that suppress the development of attached broomrape shoots to improve faba bean cultivars in breeding programs.