Abstract
Objective
The primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between gender role orientation and eating disorder attitudes and behaviors and body dissatisfaction in a sample of homosexuals, heterosexuals, and transsexuals.
Method
We screened 132 homosexuals, 178 heterosexuals (both male and female), and 15 MtF transsexuals by means of an ad hoc socio-demographic schedule; the Eating Disorders Inventory-2 and Symptom Checklist; the Body Uneasiness Test and the Bem Sex Role Inventory.
Results
Differences between homosexual, heterosexual, and transsexual participants emerged, but those data seem to be best explained by the constructs of femininity and masculinity than by the biological gender.
Discussion
The empirical evidence of a positive correlation between femininity and eating problems, and the negative correlation between masculinity and eating problems, is full of implications. Eating disorders appear to be diseases of femininity; masculinity seems to be a protective factor, independently by the biological gender.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Hoek HW, Van Hoeken D (2003) Review of the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 34:383–396
Pritchard M (2008) Disordered eating in undergraduates: does gender role orientation influence men and women the same way? Sex Roles 59:282–289
Oyebode F, Boodhoo JA, Schapira K (1998) Anorexia nervosa in males. Clinical features and outcome. Int J Eat Disord 7:121–124
Carlat DJ, Camargo CA (1991) Review of bulimia nervosa in males. Am J Psychiat 148:831–843
Kaminski PL, Chapman BP, Haynes SD et al (2005) Body image, eating behaviors, and attitudes toward exercise among gay and straight men. Eat Behav 6:179–187
Ackard DM, Fedio G, Neumark-Sztainer D et al (2008) Factors associated with disordered eating among sexually active adolescent males: gender and number of sexual partners. Psychosom Med 70:232–238
Yelland C, Tiggemann M (2003) Muscularity and the gay ideal: body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eat Behav 4:107–116
Russell CJ, Keel PK (2002) Homosexuality as a specific risk factor for eating disorders in men. Int J Eat Disord 31:300–306
Feldman MB, Meyer IH (2007) Eating disorders in diverse lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. Int J Eat Disord 40:218–226
Cella S, Iannaccone M, Ascione R et al (2010) Body dissatisfaction, abnormal eating behaviours and eating disorder attitude in homo and heterosexuals. Eat Weight Disord 15:180–185
Beren SE, Hayden HA, Wilfley DE et al (1996) The influence of sexual orientation on body dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Int J Eat Disord 20:135–141
Striegel-Moore RH, Tucker N, Hsu J (1990) Body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating in lesbian college students. Int J Eat Disord 9:493–500
Share TL, Mintz LB (2000) Differences between lesbians and heterosexual women in disordered eating and related attitudes. J Homosex 42:89–106
Moore F, Keel PK (2003) Influence of sexual orientation and age on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in women. Int J Eat Disord 34:370–374
French SA, Story M, Remafedi G et al (1996) Sexual orientation and prevalence of body dissatisfaction and eating disordered behaviors: a population-based study of adolescents. Int J Eat Disord 19:119–126
Cotrufo P, Iannaccone M, Cella S (2012) Biological gender, sexual orientation and gender role in eating disorders. In: Lobera IJ (ed) Relevant topics in eating disorders. InTech publisher, Croatia, pp 65–82
Harvey JA, Robinson JD (2003) Eating disorders in men: current considerations. J Clin Psychol Med Setting 10:297–306
Pope HG Jr, Gruber AJ, Choi P et al (1997) Muscle dysmorphia. An underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics 38:548–557
Olivardia R (2001) Mirror, mirror on the wall, who’s the largest of them all? The features and phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia. Harvard Rev Psychiat 9:254–259
Pope HG Jr, Olivardia R, Phillips K (2000) The adonis complex: the secret crisis of male body obsession. Free Press, New York
Pope CG, Pope HG, Menard W et al (2005) Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image 2:395–400
Cotrufo P (2005) Anoressia del sessuale femminile. Dal caos alla costituzione del limite. Franco Angeli, Milano
Meyer C, Blissett J, Oldfield C (2001) Sexual orientation and eating psychopathology: The role of masculinity and femininity. Int J Eat Disord 29:314–318
Jackson LA, Sullivan LA, Rostker R (1988) Gender, gender role, and body image. Sex Roles 19:429–443
Johnson ME, Brems C, Fischer P (1996) Sex role conflict, social desirability, and eating-disorder attitudes and behaviors. J Gen Psychol 123:75–87
Murnen SK, Smolak L (1997) Femininity, masculinity, and disordered eating: a meta-analytic review. Int J Eat Disord 22:231–242
Bem SL (1974) The measurement of psychological androgyny. J Consult Clin Psychol 42:155–162
Sitnick T, Katz JL (1984) Sex role identity and anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 3:81–87
Steiger H, Fraenkel L, Leichner PP (1989) Relationship of body-image distortion to sex-role identifications, irrational cognitions, and body weight in eating-disordered females. J Clin Psychol 45:61–65
Lewis LD, Johnson C (1985) A Comparison of sex role orientation between women with bulimia and normal controls. Int J Eat Disord 4:247–257
Bem SL (1977) On the utility of alternative procedures for assessing psychological androgyny. J Consult Clin Psychol 45:196–205
Hepp U, Spindler A, Milos G (2005) Eating disorder symptomatology and gender role orientation. Int J Eat Disord 37:227–233
Garner DM (1991) Eating disorder inventory—2. Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa
Behar R, De la Barrera M, Michelotti J (2001) Gender identity and eating disorders. Rev Med Chil 129:1003–1011
Cantrell PJ, Ellis JB (1991) Gender role and risk patterns for eating disorders in men and women. J Clin Psychol 47:53–57
Williams RJ, Ricciardelli LA (2001) Sex-role traits and the comorbidity of symptoms of disordered eating and problem drinking. Eat Behav 2:67–77
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: text revision, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC
Fernández-Aranda F, Peri JM, Navarro V et al (2000) Transsexualism and anorexia nervosa: a case report. Eat Disord 8:63–66
Hepp U, Milos G (2002) Gender identity disorder and eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord 32:473–478
Surgenor LJ, Fear JL (1998) Eating disorder in a transgendered patient: a case report. Int J Eat Disord 24:449–452
Winston AP, Acharya S, Chaudhuri S et al (2004) Anorexia nervosa and gender identity disorder in biologic males: a report of two cases. Int J Eat Disord 36:109–113
Vocks S, Stahn C, Loenser K (2008) Eating and body image disturbances in male-to-female and female-to-male transsexuals. Arch Sex Behav 38:364–377
Khoosal D, Langham C, Palmer B et al (2009) Features of eating disorder among male-to-female transsexuals. Sex Relat Ther 24:217–229
Mustanski BS, Garofalo R, Emerson EM (2010) Mental health disorders, psychological distress, and suicidality in a diverse sample of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youths. Am J Public Health 100:2426–2432
Cuzzolaro M, Vetrone G, Marano G et al (2000) Body Uneasiness Test, BUT. In: Conti L (ed) Repertorio delle scale di valutazione in psichiatria. SEE, Firenze, pp 1759–1761
Cuzzolaro M, Vetrone G, Marano G, Garfinkel PE (2006) The Body Uneasiness Test (BUT): development and validation of a new body image assessment scale. Eat Weight Disord 11:1–13
Heffernan K (1996) Eating disorders and weight concern among lesbians. Int J Eat Disord 19:127–138
Silverstein B, Carpman S, Perlick D et al (1990) Nontraditional sex role aspirations, gender identity conflict, and disordered eating among college women. Sex Roles 23:687–695
Lakkis J, Ricciardelli LA, Williams RJ (1999) The role of sexual orientation and gender related-traits in disordered eating. Sex Roles 41:1–16
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cella, S., Iannaccone, M. & Cotrufo, P. Influence of gender role orientation (masculinity versus femininity) on body satisfaction and eating attitudes in homosexuals, heterosexuals and transsexuals. Eat Weight Disord 18, 115–124 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-013-0017-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-013-0017-z