Introduction

Caves are strongly zonal environment with unique characteristics determined by the karst morphology, subterranean water and surrounding rocks (Kuzmina et al. 2012; Gabriel and Northup 2013). Caves thus have distinctly characteristics, such as darkness, constantly low temperature, high humidity, and oligotrophy (Gabriel and Northup 2013; Zhang et al. 2017, 2018). As a relatively closed space, caves usually have one or several entrances and the environments may be affected by various factors, such as the air currents, chemolithoautotrophy, visitors, and water movements (streams or water seeps; Hose et al. 2000; Barton and Jurado 2007; Gabriel and Northup 2013; Ortiz et al. 2014). Meanwhile, caves are totally dark and lack photosynthesis thus believed to be generally oligotrophic in nature (Hose et al. 2000; Barton and Jurado 2007; Gabriel and Northup 2013; Ortiz et al. 2014; Jiang et al. 2017a). The microbial flora in caves might be shaped by these above affecting factors and oligotrophic environment (Ogórek et al. 2013; Ortiz et al. 2014).

Fungi play important roles in cave ecosystem, such as biomineralization or serving as food of cave fauna (Northup and Lavoie 2001; Barton and Northup 2007; Nováková 2009; Li et al. 2015). While, most of the previous studies were focused on cave fauna and fungal diversity has rarely been documented (Zhang et al. 2017). The studies on culturable fungi in caves can be divided into three periods, namely, early stage, developing stage, and explosive stage.

Early stage: before 1980s. The earliest description of fungi in caves was published as early as 1794 by Humboldt, as described in Dobat (1967), and the first ecological literature of caves was that by Megušar (1914). In 1913, Lagarde investigated the fungal diversity in several caves in Europe and described a new species, Ombrophila speluncarum Lagarde. During 1950s–1980s, studies on cave fungi were mostly about animal pathogens, e.g., Histoplasma capsulatum Darling (Ajello et al. 1960a, b; Al-Doory and Rhoades 1968; Di Salvo et al. 1969; Zamora 1977), Trichophyton mentagrophytes (C.P. Robin) Sabour and other dermatophytes (Lurie and Borok 1955; Lurie and Way 1957; Kajihiro 1965).

Developing stage: During 1980s to early 2010s, a number of studies on fungal diversity in caves were reported. Cunningham et al. (1995) investigated the microorganisms in Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico and obtained nine fungal genera, of which, Aspergillus P. Micheli ex Haller and Penicillium Link were most common. Koilraj et al. (1999) isolated 35 sporulating fungi, belonging to 18 genera and seven sterile fungi from six different caves in India. In the investigation on mycobiota in caves in Slovakia, 195 species belonging to 73 genera, including 92 species were obtained from bat droppings and guano (Nováková 2009).

Explosive stage: since bat White Nose Syndrome (WNS) outbreak in America in 2006. WNS was caused by pathogenic fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Blehert & Gargas) Minnis & D.L. Lindner (Syn: Geomyces destructans Blehert & Gargas), a species isolated from many caves in Europe and North America (Blehert et al. 2009; Martínková et al. 2010; Kubátová et al. 2011; Minnis and Lindner 2013), and resulted in 6 million deaths of bat and ca. 3.7 billion dollars loss in America in 2011 (Boyles et al. 2011). Studies on P. destructans signigicantly improved our knowledge on mycobiota in caves. According to our statistics, about 110 research papers on fungi in caves have been published since 2006 worldwide, indicating a high fungal diversity in caves. In total, about 1000 species of fungi in 550 genera have been documented from caves and mines worldwide by 2012 (Vanderwolf et al. 2013). Common genera are mostly cosmopolitans, i.e. Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor Fresen, Fusarium Link, Trichoderma Pers., etc. The most common species are also widespread, i.e. Aspergillus versicolor (Vuill.) Tirab., A. niger Tiegh., Penicillium chrysogenum Thom, Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) G.A. de Vries, A. fumigatus Fresen., etc. (Vanderwolf et al. 2013).

The Karst landform covers more than 1/3 of the total land area of China and there are more than half million karst caves scattered in China (Ran and Chen 1998; Chen 2006; Zhang and Zhu 2012). However, most studies on cave microorganisms in China were focus on bacteria, and the investigation on fungal diversity was rare, with only several documentations (Hsu and Agoramoorthy 2001; Man et al. 2015; Jiang et al. 2017a; Zhang et al. 2017). In Zhang et al. (2017), 563 fungal strains belonging to 246 species in 116 genera were reported from two unnamed karst cave in Guizhou, China, including 20 new species. Using oligotrophic carbon free silica gel medium, Jiang et al. (2017a, b) studied the oligotrophic fungi from a carbonate cave in China. 169 oligotrophic strains belonging to at least 84 taxa were isolated and four new species were described. With the development of tourism, more and more caves have been heavily affected by human activities. The fungal diversity and resources in caves are thus urgent to be investigated. The objective of this study was to systematically investigate the culturable fungal resources from karst caves in China. In response to this, 13 caves in five provinces were visited and sample of organic litter, rock, soil and water were collected for isolation. Novel species were identified and described based on morphological characters and phylogenetic affinities.

Material and methods

Sampling collection

Southwest China, including Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, the center of East Asia developing Karst area, is the largest and most complex developing karst area in the world (Zhou et al. 2007). Thirteen accessible caves in Southwest China were selected for this study (Figs. 1 and 2, Table 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Locations of the 13 visited caves in southwest China. Cave names are abbreviated and full names are in Table 1

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Fig. 2
figure 2

Scenes of visited caves. a, b Entrances to Sanjiao Cave and E’gu Cave; c tiankeng at the end of Er’wang Cave; d tunnel of Sanjiao Cave; e–g beautiful stalactite and stalagmite; h broken stalactite; i poetry of Qing dynasty (1861 AD) on the wall at 500 m in Tianliang cave; j colorless plant; k roots; l bats; m myriapod

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Table 1 Information of sampled caves
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Samples of rock, soil and water were collected along these thirteen caves and preserved at 4 °C before isolation. From the entrance of the caves, the distance of each two adjacent sampling sites was same and depend on the length of caves (Table 1).

Seeping, stream and pool water was collected for 10 mL, respectively, and kept in 15 mL sterile centrifuge tubes. Ten grams of soil samples were collected at shallow depth (0.5–5.0 cm) after removing surface layer (ca. 0.5 cm) from three sites of each location. Rock samples were collected and packed in zip-locked plastic bags following Ruibal et al. (2005). At each sample site, 5 pieces of rock in different orientations were collected. Rocks that were apparently being colonized by fungi were also chipped off and collected along the caves. Organic litter, when discovered, were collected, including bat droppings, guano, animal dung, animal carcass, and plant debris (Zhang et al. 2017).

Isolation

Fungi were isolated following the dilution plate method (Zhang et al. 2015). One gram of each collected sample was suspended in 9 mL sterile water in a 15 mL sterile centrifuge tube. The tubes were shaken with Vortex vibration meter thoroughly. The suspension was then diluted to a series of concentrations, i.e. 10−1, 10−2, 10−3, 10−4, 10−5 and 10−6. Diluted concentration of 10−3 and 10−4 appeared to be most convenient for colony pickup in the isolating process from organic litters, while that for water and soil samples were 10−1 and 10−2 respectively. Two hundred microliters suspensions from each concentration were spread onto 1/4 PDA containing ampicillin (50 µg/mL) and streptomycin (50 µg/mL) with three replicates.

Rock samples were processed following the protocol of Ruibal et al. (2005) with some modifications. Firstly, the rock surface was washed with 95% ethanol to eliminate the contamination from dust and airborne spores, and washed once with sterile water containing 0.1% of Tween 20. The small pieces of rocks were then ground into powder using a sterilized mortar and pestle. Suspensions were made by adding sterilized water to the concentration of 10−1. Three different volumes of the rock powder suspension, i.e. 300, 500, and 1000 µL, were respectively placed onto three 1/4 PDA plates supplemented with ampicillin (50 µg/mL) and streptomycin (50 µg/mL) (Ruibal et al. 2005; Selbmann et al. 2005; Collado et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2017).

All the plates were incubated at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) for 3–4 weeks, and from which the single colonies were picked up and inoculated onto new PDA plates every two days. All fungal strains were stored at 4 °C for further studies.

Molecular analyses

Total fungal genomic DNAs were extracted following a modified CTAB method of Doyle (1987). The internal transcribed spacer regions and intervening 5.8S nrRNA gene (ITS), the large subunit (LSU) rDNA, the small subunit (SSU) rDNA, the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (EF-1α), RNA polymerase II subunit (RPB2), Twenty S rRNA accumulation (Tsr1), and β-tubulin (TUB) regions were amplified using primer pairs ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), LR0R/LR5 (Vilgalys and Hester 1990), NS1/NS4 (White et al. 1990), 983F/2218R (Rehner and Buckley 2005), RPB2-5F2/fRPB2-7cR (Liu et al. 1999; Sung et al. 2007b) F1526Pc/R2434 (Houbraken and Samson 2011) and Bt2a/Bt2b (Glass and Donaldson 1995), respectively. Amplification reactions were performed in a 25 μL reaction volume including 2.5 μL 10 × PCR Buffer (Dingguo, Beijing, China), 2 mM MgCl2, 50 μM dNTPs, 0.1 μM of each forward and reverse primer, 0.5 U Taq DNA polymerase and 1–10 ng genomic DNA in amplifier (Dongsheng, EDC-810, China). PCR parameters were as follows: 94 °C for 10 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 54 °C for 30 s, 72 °C for 30 s and a final elongation step at 72 °C for 10 min. Annealing temperature for each gene were 50 °C for LSU and Tsr1, 54 °C for ITS, RPB2 and SSU, and 57 °C for EF-1α and TUB. Sequencing reactions were performed by OmegaGenetcis Company Limited, Beijing, China.

All obtained strains were BLASTn searched in NCBI and assigned to potential genera and species. The strains whose ITS sequences had closest similarities below 97% were recognized as potential new species and further identified through morphological characterization and phylogenetic analyses.

To reveal the order placements of new species described in this paper, a LSU tree was constructed. To reveal the phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic distinctions of novel species, analyses were performed based on ITS, LSU and genetic markers recommended in recent publications, such as EF1-α, Tsr1 and TUB. All sequences of different loci were aligned using MAFFT (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/msa/mafft/) (Katoh and Toh 2010) and edited manually using MEGA v. 7 (Kumar et al. 2016) separately. Individual alignments were then concatenated and used for phylogenetic analysis next step. Ambiguously aligned regions were excluded from all analyses.

Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods were used to construct the phylogenetic trees. The ML analyses were implemented using RAxML-HPC v. 8.2.7 (Stamatakis 2014) with 1000 replicates under the GTR-GAMMA model. The robustness of branches was assessed by bootstrap analysis with 1000 replicates. For Bayesian analysis, the best model of evolution was estimated using jModelTest v. 2.1.7 (Guindon and Gascuel 2003; Darriba et al. 2012). Posterior probabilities (PP) (Rannala and Yang 1996; Zhaxybayeva and Gogarten 2002) were calculated by Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampling (MCMC) in MrBayes v. 3.2.1 (Huelsenbeck and Ronquist 2001), using the estimated evolutionary models. Six simultaneous Markov chains were run for 1,000,000 generations, and trees were sampled every 1000th generations (resulting 10,000 trees totally). The first 2000 trees, representing the burn-in phase of the analyses, were discarded and the remaining 8000 trees were used to calculate posterior probabilities (PP) in the majority rule consensus tree. The final trees were visualized in TreeView (Page 1996). All the sequences generated were deposited in GenBank (Table 2), typifications in Index Fungorum (http://www.indexfungorum.org), novel taxonomic descriptions in Faces of Fungi (Jayasiri et al. 2015), and the multi-locus alignments and trees in TreeBASE (submission number: 26362).

Table 2 Strain and sequence accession numbers of new species
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Morphological studies

Strains of potentially new species were transferred to new plates of PDA, OA and synthetic nutrient-poor agar (SNA; Nirenberg 1976) and were incubated at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C). Growth rates were measured after 7 days, while slow growing strains were measured after 10 days or even 8 weeks. Colony morphologies were determined after 10 days and colony colors on the surface and reverse of inoculated petri dishes were assessed according to the Methuen handbook of colour (Kornerup and Wanscher 1978). Cultures were examined periodically for the development of reproductive structures. Photomicrographs were taken using a Nikon 80i microscope with differential interference contrast. Measurements for each structure were made according to methods described by Liu et al. (2012). The dry cultures were deposited in the Herbarium of Microbiology, Academia Sinica (HMAS), while living cultures were deposited in the China General Microbiological Culture Collection Center (CGMCC) and LC Culture Collection (personal culture collection held in the lab of Dr Lei Cai).

Results

In this study, 251 samples from these thirteen caves were collected and 2344 fungal strains were isolated. These strains belong to 253 genera, 610 species by employing a BLASTn search in GenBank using the ITS sequences (Table S1). Among these species, 88.0 % (i.e., 536 species, 2115 strains) belong to 213 genera of Ascomycota; 8.0 % (i.e., 49 species, 133 strains) belong to 33 genera of Basidiomycota; 1.9 % (i.e., 12 species, 22 strains) belong to five genera of Mucoromycota, 1.9 % (i.e., 12 species, 73 strains) belong to one genera of Mortierellomycota; 0.2 % (i.e., 1 species, 1 strains) belong to one genera of Glomeromycota (Fig. 3a, Table S1). The most common genera included: Penicillium (12.0 %), Aspergillus (5.7 %), Trichoderma (3.4 %), Arthrinium Kunze (2.3 %), Fusarium (2.1 %), Microascus Zukal (2.1 %), Mortierella Coem. (2.0 %), Cephalotrichum Link (1.3 %), Clonostachys Corda (1.1 %), and Simplicillium Zare & W. Gams (1 %) (Fig. 3c, Table 3). The most common species included Purpureocillium lilacinum (Thom) Luangsa-ard (59 strains), Mortierella alpine Peyronel (56 strains), Penicillium (Pe.) citrinum Thom (55 strains), Pe. simplicissimum (Oudem.) Thom (53 strains), Acremonium sp. 6 (51 strains), Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) G.A. de Vries (45 strains), Amphichorda cavernicola Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai (42 strains), Trichoderma harzianum Rifai (40 strains), Cephalotrichum asperulum (J.E. Wright & S. Marchand) Sand.-Den., Guarro & Gené (36 strains), Aspergillus versicolor (Vuill.) Tirab. (32 strains), Parengyodontium album (Limber) C.C. Tsang, et al. (30 strains), and Plectosphaerella cucumerina (Lindf.) W. Gams (30 strains).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Statistics of fungi in caves in this study (a–d) and worldwide (e–f). a The number of fungal genera, species and strains in different phyla obtained in this study; b the number of fungal genera, species and strains isolated from different substrates in this study; c most abundant fungal genera observed in this study; d venn diagram of fungal genera obtained from different substrates in this study. e the number of fungal genera and species reported in caves worldwide; f fungal genera with highest diversity reported in caves worldwide

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Table 3 Most common genera (≥ 5 species) obtained from Karst caves in this study
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For the isolations of substrate, 1137 strains from soil samples belong to 377 species in 170 genera; 803 strains from organic litters belong to 270 species in 129 genera; 300 strains from rock samples belong to 133 species in 74 genera; 104 strains from water samples belong to 60 species in 46 genera (Fig. 3b). Seventeen genera were found in these four types of substrate, i.e. Acremonium Link, Arthrinium Kunze, Aspergillus, Beauveria Vuill, Cephalotrichum, Chaetomium Kunze, Cladosporium Link, Cutaneotrichosporon Xin Zhan Liu, F.Y. Bai, M. Groenew. & Boekhout, Didymella Sacc, Fusarium, Leptosphaeria Ces. & De Not., Mortierella, Mucor, Penicillium, Plectosphaerella Kleb, Purpureocillium Luangsa-ard, Hywel-Jones, Houbraken & Samson, Trichoderma (Fig. 3d).

Meanwhile, we summarized data on the fungi of caves from 56 papers published in the peer-reviewed literatures (Table 4) since 2013 in English based on Vanderwolf et al. (2013). Following the newest records in Index Fungorum (http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp), we revised the fungal names documented in caves. By February 2020, 1626 species in 644 genera of fungi have been reported from caves and mines worldwide. In our study, 76 of the 253 genera and 247 of the 468 identified species (52.8 %) were reported for the first time from caves. With our data, totally, 1923 fungal species in 720 genera were documented from caves and mines (Table 4). Of the fungal taxa reported from caves and mines, nine phyla were observed (Fig. 3e), Ascomycota (1474 species in 502 genera), Basidiomycota (339 species in 189 genera), Mucoromycota (64 species in 17 genera), Mortierellomycota (33 species in 1 genus), Entomophthoromycota (4 species in 3 genera), Chytridiomycota (3 species in 3 genera), Zoopagomycota (3 species in 3 genera), Kickxellomycota (2 species in 1 genera) and Glomeromycota (1 species in 1 genus). Twenty-two genera have more than 10 species reported in caves worldwide, most of which belong to Ascomycota (Fig. 3f).

Table 4 Fungi documented from caves and mines worldwide with references. New species described in this study are in bold
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Thirty-three new species were described and illustrated in this paper, based on the morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses. The LSU phylogenetic tree (Fig. 4) showed that these 33 new species (marked with bold font) scattered in seven different orders, i.e., Calosphaeriales, Eurotiales, Hypocreales, Microascales, Onygenales, Pleosporales, and Xylariales. Significant ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probabilities (≥ 90 %) are shown in the phylogenetic tree.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree based on LSU sequences showing the order placements of new species described in this study. 122 strains belong to eight orders are used. The tree is rooted with Sarcoscypha coccinea (FF176859). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 9721.274792. The matrix had 422 distinct alignment patterns, with 7.98 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.1940, C = 0.2411, G = 0.3481, T = 0.2168; substitution rates AC = 0.9460, AG = 3.5105, AT = 1.8719, CG = 0.5969, CT = 8.3876, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.5390. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are indicated in bold font and the orders are shown on the right side of the figure

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Taxonomy

Phylum Ascomycota Caval.-Sm.

We follow the latest treatment of Ascomycota (Wijayawardene et al. 2018, 2020), with classes, subclasses, orders, families, genera and species listed below in alphabetical order.


Class Dothideomycetes O.E. Erikss. & Winka

Based on molecular dating evidence, Liu et al. (2017) updated the multi-locus phylogeny of Dothideomycetes and unraveled the evolutionary relationships. In this paper, the classification of families in Dothideomycetes follow Liu et al. (2017) and Wijayawardene et al. (2018, 2020).


Subclass Pleosporomycetidae C.L. Schoch, Spatafora, Crous & Shoemaker


Pleosporales Luttr. ex M.E. Barr

The order Pleosporales was introduced by Luttrell (1955) to accommodate a highly diverse fungal group of Dothideomycetes having perithecioid ascomata and asci with pseudoparaphyses (Zhang et al. 2009). More details see Zhang et al. (2012) and Hyde et al. (2013).


Didymosphaeriaceae Munk

We follow the treatment of Ariyawansa et al. (2014), Hyde et al. (2017) and Wijayawardene et al. (2020) in the study.


Paraphaeosphaeria O.E. Erikss.

Paraphaeosphaeria was introduced by Eriksson (1967) to accommodate four species with oblong-cylindric ascospores, and placed in Didymosphaeriaceae (= Montagnulaceae) by Ariyawansa et al. (2014) based on multi-locus phylogeny. Currently there are 33 species in Paraphaeosphaeria (Wijayawardene et al. 2020). Here, we introduce a new species of Paraphaeosphaeria named as P. hydei isolated from plant debris (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Paraphaeosphaeria and allied genera based on ITS, LSU, Actin and TUB sequences. Twenty strains are used. The tree is rooted with Paraconiothyrium archidendri (CBS 168.77). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 7370.589451. The matrix had 487 distinct alignment patterns, with 12.14 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2240, C = 0.2745, G = 0.2723, T = 0.2292; substitution rates AC = 1.7609, AG = 4.2567, AT = 1.7609, CG = 1.0000, CT = 7.3594, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.2610. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Paraphaeosphaeria hydei Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556392, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08425, Fig. 6

Fig. 6
figure 6

Paraphaeosphaeria hydei (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19317). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 14 d after inoculation; d pycnidia on OA; e section of pycnidia; f pycnidial wall; g, h conidiogenous cells; i conidia; j chlamydospore-like hyphae. Scale bars: e 20 µm; f–j 10 µm

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Etymology: “hydei” named for in honour of Prof. Kevin D. Hyde for his contribution to ascomycetes taxonomy.

Holotype: HMAS 247988.

Hyphae hyaline to brown, septate, branched, sometimes swollen to chlamydospore-like cell, brown, thick-walled, up to 12µm diam. Asexual morph Conidiomata pycnidial, erumpent, single, or eustromatic and more complex, mostly superficial, globose, glabrous, dark brown, up to 200 µm diam, with central ostiole. Pycnidial wall composed of an outer layer of yellow-brown, thick-walled textura angularis, and an inner layer with hyaline, thin-walled cells. Conidiogenous cells lining the inner cavity, ampulliform or flask-shaped, smooth, hyaline, 4.0–7.5 × 5.0–8.0 µm. Conidia abundant, solitary, unicellular, ovoid or ellipsoidal with obtuse ends, smooth, thick-walled, brown, 6.0–8.0 × 4.0–6.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 7.1 ± 0.55 × 5.2 ± 0.45 µm, n = 60), average L/W ratio 1.36 ± 0.15. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 45 mm diam. after 21 days, flat, felty, margin entire, dark olive (27F4) at margin, pale gray (28B1) at middle, olive (27D3) in center with pale gray (28B1) patches, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse dark olive (27F2). Colonies on OA attaining 45 mm diam. after 21 days, flat, black to dark olive (26F5), aerial mycelia sparse, with abundant black conidiomata scattered. Reverse black. Colonies on SNA attaining 45 mm diam. after 21 days, aerial mycelia sparse, colorless. Reverse colorless. Sporulation within 20 days on PDA and OA.

Material examined: CHINA, Yunnan, Yiliang, Sanjiao Cave, N 25.134°, E 103.383°, on plant debris, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247988 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19317 = LC12564; ibid., LC12565.

Notes: In the multi-locus phylogenetic analysis, this new species clustered with Paraphaeosphaeria arecacearum Verkley, Göker & Stielow in a distinct clade (Fig. 5). However, conidia of P. arecacearum are longer than that of P. dispersa (3.5–6.0 µm vs. 3.0–4.0 µm, 2.0 ± 0.04 vs. 1.36 ± 0.15 for average L/W ratio). In addition, P. dispersa growing on OA (45 mm/14 days) is much slower than P. arecacearum (70–75 mm/10 days).


Setophaeosphaeria Crous & Y. Zhang ter

Setophaeosphaeria was established by Crous et al. (2014) to accommodate ascomycetes that are dissimilar to Phaeosphaeria in the absence of ascomatal setae, and with phoma-like anamorphs. Setophaeosphaeria currently comprises six species, with S. hemerocallidis Crous & Y. Zhang ter as type, and one new species described herein as S. microsporai (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7
figure 7

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Setophaeosphaeria and allied genera based on ITS, LSU and TUB sequences. Twenty-five strains are used. The tree is rooted with Vrystaatia aloeicola (CBS 135107). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 6493.809681. The matrix had 346 distinct alignment patterns, with 5.32 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2352, C = 0.2241, G = 0.2578, T = 0.2829; substitution rates AC = 3.1633, AG = 6.7092, AT = 3.1633, CG = 1.0000, CT = 6.7092, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.6780. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Setophaeosphaeria microspora Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556393, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08426; Fig. 8

Fig. 8
figure 8

Setophaeosphaeria microspora (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19301). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 14 d after inoculation; d pycnidia on SNA; d section of pycnidia; f pycnidial wall; g setae; h–i conidiogenous cells; j conidia. Scale bars: d 100 µm; e, g 20 µm; f, h–j 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its smaller conidia than other species in this genus.

Holotype: HMAS 247990.

Hyphae hyaline to brown, septate, branched. Asexual morph Conidiomata pycnidial, single or eustromatic, superficial or immersed, globose, brown, up to 260 µm diam, with central ostiole. Pycnidial wall of 2–3 layers of the brown textura angularis. Setae slightly flexuous, septate, unbranched, smooth, thick-walled, brown to pale brown from base to apex, more abundant surrounding ostiole, with obtuse ends, 45–130 µm long, 2.0–4.0 µm wide. Conidiogenous cells lining the inner cavity, ampulliform, proliferating several times percurrently at apex, smooth, hyaline, 7.0–10.0 × 2.5–4.0 µm. Conidia abundant, unicellular, cylindrical, guttulate, with obtuse ends, smooth, hyaline, 3.0–4.5 × 1.5–2.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.0 ± 0.25 × 1.7 ± 0.13 µm, n = 60). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 30–34 mm diam. after 10 days, flat, margin entire, beige (2B4) to olive (2E3) from margin to center. Reverse beige (2B4) to olive (2E3). Colonies on OA attaining 34–37 mm diam. after 10 days, flat, ulotrichy, white to pale gray (3B1) from margin to center. Reverse white to olive (28E5). Colonies on SNA attaining 39–40 mm diam. after 10 days, flat, cottony, margin entire, beige (3B3). Reverse beige (3B3). Sporulation within 15 d on OA and SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Laibin, Sanshan Cave, N 23.41°, E 108.931°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247990 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19301 = LC9240; ibid., LC10444.

Notes: Our strains form a distinct clade with Setophaeosphaeria species based on ITS, LSU and TUB sequences (Fig. 7), but can be distinguished from known species by its smaller conidia (> 6.0 µm long and 2.0–3.0 µm wide in other species) and larger conidiogenous cells (< 7.0 µm long in other species).


Class Eurotiomycetes O.E. Erikss. & Winka

Eurotiomycetes is one of the most diverse classes in the subphylum Pezizomycotina. We follow the latest classification of Gueidan et al. (2014) and Geiser et al. (2015).


Subclass Eurotiomycetidae


Eurotiales G.W. Martin ex Benny & Kimbr.

Eurotiales comprises some of the most commonly encountered microfungi, including the well known genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, some species of which can survive at extreme environments, such as deep water and high temperature (Geiser et al. 2015).


Aspergillaceae Link

Aspergillaceae was established by Link (1826), and re-instated by Houbraken and Samson (2011) based on multi-locus phylogeny. Species belonging to this family have diverse physiological properties; some could tolerant extreme conditions, such as high sugar or salt concentrations, low or high temperatures, low acidity or low oxygen levels (Houbraken et al. 2014). Aspergillaceae species are predominantly saprobic, while a few species are pathogenic (Houbraken et al. 2014).


Aspergillus P. Micheli ex Haller

Aspergillus is one of the most economically important genera of fungi. The aspergillum-like sporebearing structure is the defining characteristic of Aspergillus. Currently, 4 subgenera and 19 sections are accepted in Aspergillus (Houbraken et al. 2014). In this study, three new species are described as A. limoniformis, A. phialiformis and A. phialosimplex (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9
figure 9

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of phialosimplex-like Aspergillus and several other Aspergillus species based on ITS, RPB2, Tsr and TUB sequences. Twenty-five strains are used. The tree is rooted with Trichocoma paradoxa (CBS 247.57). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 19500.215104. The matrix had 1225 distinct alignment patterns, with 11.99 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2187, C = 0.2928, G = 0.2635, T = 0.2250; substitution rates AC = 0.9532, AG = 3.3181, AT = 0.9699, CG = 0. 7315, CT = 4.0026, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 1.5800. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Aspergillus limoniformis Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556394, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08427; Fig. 10

Fig. 10
figure 10

Aspergillus limoniformis (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19323). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–h phialides and conidia; i conidia. Scale bars: d–i 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to the shape of its limoniform conidia.

Holotype: HMAS 248014.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, branched, 1.0–2.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiogenous cells simple phialides arising laterally on vegetative hyphae. Phialides cylindrical, ampulliform, or tapering with enlarged base, smooth, hyaline, variable in length, 4.0–10.0 µm long, 1.5–5.0 µm diam. at base, tapering to 1.0–2.0 µm diam. at apex. Conidia formed in long chains, limoniform or subglobose, obviously apiculate, thick-walled, rough initially, then becoming smooth with age, hyaline, 3.0–4.5 × 2.5–4.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 3.7 ± 0.33 × 3.3 ± 0.25 µm, n = 60). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 25–31 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty to pulverulent, margin entire, beige (5B3) at fruiting region, white to dark brown (5F8) from middle to aging region. Reverse cream yellow (3A2) to dark brown (5F8). Colonies on OA attaining 24–35 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin entire, white to pale brown (5A2), aerial mycelia extremely sparse. Reverse pale brown (5A2) to brown (6D8). Colonies on SNA attaining 29–39 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, pulverulent, whitesmoke. Reverse whitesmoke. Sporulation within 3 weeks.

Material examined: CHINA, Yunnan, Mengzi, Mingjiu old Cave, N 23.487°, E 103.619°, on bat guano, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248014 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19323 = LC126098; ibid., LC12610.

Notes: Phylogenetic analyses based on ITS, RPB2, Tsr and TUB sequences showed that our new species should be classified in Aspergillus subgenus Polypaecilum (Fig. 9), which were also supported by the phialosimplex-like morphologies. Aspergillus limoniformis is phylogenetically closely related to A. phialiformis and A. phialosimplex. However, A. limoniformis can be distinguished from A. phialiformis and A. phialosimplex by the absence of globose conidia.


Aspergillus phialiformis Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556395, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08428; Fig. 11

Fig. 11
figure 11

Aspergillus phialiformis (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19314). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–i phialides and conidia; j conidia. Scale bars: d–j 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its phialidic conidiogenous cells.

Holotype: HMAS 248017.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, branched, 1.0–2.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiogenous cells simple phialides arising laterally on vegetative hyphae. Phialides cylindrical or tapering with enlarged base, occasionally branched, smooth, hyaline, variable in length, 4.0–12.0 µm long, 1.0–4.0 µm diam at base, tapering to 1.0–2.0 µm diam. at apex. Conidia formed in long chains, limoniform, subglobose or globose, apiculate, thick-walled, rough initially, then becoming smooth with age, hyaline, 2.5–4.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 3.3 ± 0.28, n = 60). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 36–41 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin fimbriate, cream yellow (4A2) at fruiting region, white to pale brown (5A2) from middle to aging region, with brown, radially striate and lobate ring, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse cream-yellow (4A2) to brown (5C7). Colonies on OA attaining 31–36 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin undulate, aerial mycelia sparse, pulverulent in center, white. Reverse floralwhite (4A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 43–47 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, pulverulent, white. Reverse white. Sporulation within 3 weeks.

Material examined: CHINA, Yunnan, Yiliang, Sanjiao Cave, N 25.134°, E 103.383°, on rock, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248017 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19314 = LC12536; ibid., LC12537.

Notes: Aspergillus phialiformis is phylogenetically closely related to A. phialosimplex (Fig. 9). While, phialides of A. phialiformis are cylindrical or basal enlarged, which are mostly cylindrical in A. phialosimplex. Meanwhile, limoniform conidia are not observed in A. phialosimplex and color of A. phialosimplex and A. phialiformis on PDA and OA are different.


Aspergillus phialosimplex Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556396, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08429; Fig. 12

Fig. 12
figure 12

Aspergillus phialosimplex (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19637). a–c upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–g phialides and conidia; h. conidia. Scale bars: d–h 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its phialosimplex-like morphology.

Holotype: HMAS 248007.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, branched, 1.0–3.5 μm wide, sometimes swollen, up to 7.0 μm. Asexual morph Conidiogenous cells simple phialides arising laterally on vegetative hyphae. Phialides cylindrical, occasionally ampulliform, variable in length, smooth, hyaline, 2.5–8.5 µm long, 1.0–2.0 µm diam. Conidia formed in long chains, subglobose to globose, thick-walled, rough initially, then becoming smooth with age, hyaline, 3.5–5.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.7 ± 0.42, n = 60). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 20–29 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty to pulverulent, margin slightly undulate, brown (7C5) to dark brown (7F7) from margin to center. Reverse pale brown (6B3) to dark brown (7F8). Colonies on OA attaining 20–28 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin entire, white to pale lavender (6B2), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white to pale brown. Colonies on SNA attaining 42–46 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, pulverulent, margin unclear, white. Reverse white. Sporulation within 3 weeks.

Material examined: CHINA, Sichuan, Huaying, Liujia Cave, N 30.41°, E 106.878°, on plant debris, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248007 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19637 = LC12578; Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12658; Yunnan, Yuxi, Niumo Cave, N 28.192°, E 102.842°, on plant root, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12625.

Notes: Aspergillus phialosimplex is phylogenetically allied to A. phialiformis (Fig. 9), but they can be easily distinguished (see notes of A. phialiformis).


Onygenales Cif. ex Benny & Kimbr.

The Onygenales in Eurotiomycetes is characterized by smooth or appendiculate ascomata, with pseudoparenchymatous, membranous cleistoperidium or filamentous gymnoperidium of loosely interwoven hyphae, centrum of globose, irregularly disposed, pseudoprototunicate asci, and one-celled, hyaline or pale coloured ascospores (Currah 1985, Doveri et al. 2012). Species of Onygenales are usually keratinophilic, keratinolytic, cellulolytic or chitinoclastic (Doveri et al. 2012).


Gymnoascaceae Baran.

The family Gymnoascaceae was firstly established by Baranetzky 1872, with Gymnoascus and G. reessii as type genus and species respectively. Members of this family are often isolated from soil, plant debris, dung or animal components (Doveri et al. 2012).


Gymnoascus Baran.

The genus Gymnoascus was classified in Gymnoascaceae, Onygenales, with G. reesii as generic type (Baranetzky 1872). In the most recent treatment, genera Arachniotus Arachniotus J. Schröt., Gymnascella Peck, Gymnoascoideus G.F. Orr, K. Roy & G.R. Ghosh and Narasimhella Thirum. & P.N. Mathur have been synonymized with Gymnoascus based on the morphological and molecular evidences, marking Gymnoascus one of the largest genera in the order Onygenales (Solé et al. 2002). Gymnoascus is characterized by spherical, yellowish to brownish ascomata with peridium composed of a loose network of hyaline or pigmented hyphae, with or without appendages, and by oblate and pigmented ascospores and chrysosporium-like conidia (von Arx 1977; Solé et al. 2002; Sharma and Singh 2013; Zhou et al. 2016). The genus currently comprises 22 species (Zhou et al. 2016). In this study, one new species is described as Gymnoascus flavus (Fig. 13).

Fig. 13
figure 13

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Gymnoascus and allied genera based on ITS and LSU sequences. Thirty-four strains are used. Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 9224.916077. The matrix had 579 distinct alignment patterns, with 22.64 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2064, C = 0.2679, G = 0.2988, T = 0.2269; substitution rates AC = 1.5486, AG = 2.9623, AT = 2.4354, CG = 0.9897, CT = 5.0848, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 1.0300. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Gymnoascus flavus Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556397, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08430; Fig. 14

Fig. 14
figure 14

Gymnoascus flavus (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19574). a, b Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; c fertile mycelia on SNA; d, e terminal and lateral conidia; f conidia. Scale bars: d–f 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the color of its conidia, yellow.

Holotype: HMAS 248010.

Hyphae pale yellow to yellow, septate, branched, smooth or slightly rough, 1.5–5.0 µm diam.; racquet hyphae present, ‘racquet’ up to 11.0 μm wide. Asexual morph Fertile mycelia usually gathered into special, superficial yellow structure, where conidia borne mostly. Conidia mostly terminal or lateral, occasionally intercalary, sessile or borne on short protrusions or side branches, unicellular, pyriform, ellipsoidal or globose, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline initially, then becoming yellow, 4.5–7.0 × 4–6 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 6.0 ± 0.62 × 5.1 ± 0.64 µm, n = 60), with truncated base. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 26–34 mm diam. after 3 weeks, coriarious, plicated in center, margin entire, beige (1A2) to salmon (6A3), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse beige (1A2) to orange (6A3). Colonies on OA not growing. Colonies on SNA attaining 24–27 mm diam. after 10 days, powdery, margin rhizoids, white initially, becoming light yellow (2A3-2A5) when sporulation, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white to pale yellow (2A3). Sporulation within 2 weeks on SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Sichuan, Xingwen, Feng Cave, N 28.186°, E 105.148°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248010 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19574 = LC12500; Sichuan, Xingwen, Tianliang Cave, N 28.19°, E 105.139°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12511.

Notes: Phylogenetically, Gymnoascus flavus forms a distinct clade sister to G. exasperates Z.F. Zhang, F. Liu & L. Cai, G. reessii and G. uncinatus Eidam based on ITS and LSU sequences (Fig. 13). However, dissimilar to G. reessii and G. uncinatus, the sexual morph of G. flavus was not observed despite repeated attempts using OA, PDA and SNA media, as well as horse hair and chicken feather as inducers (Orr and Kuehn 1972). Conidia of Gymnoascus flavus are mostly terminal or lateral, as compared to the abundant intercalary conidia of G. exasperates.


Onygenaceae Berk.

The Onygenaceae is characterised by pseudoparenchymatous cleistothecia or hyphal gymnothecia with a structure similar to Gymnoascaceae. The ascospores of Onygenaceae are oblate, discoidal, or spherical, sometimes reniform or allantoid, punctate, pitted or pitted-reticulate, and the anamorphs are predominantly one-celled arthro- and aleurioconidia (Doveri et al. 2012).


Auxarthron G.F. Orr & Kueh

The Auxarthron was placed in Gymnoascaceae when established (Orr et al. 1963), while subsequent studies based on molecular data showed its actual affinity to Onygenaceae (Sugiyama et al. 1999; Sigler et al. 2002). Hitherto, Auxarthron encompasses 18 species. In this study, two new species are described as Auxarthron chinense and A. guangxiense (Fig. 15).

Fig. 15
figure 15

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Auxarthron, Auxarthronopsis, Chrysosporium and allied genera based on ITS sequences. Sixty-two strains are used. The tree is rooted with Corynascus citrinus (BCC 79098) and Corynascella inaequalis (CBS 331.75). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 10475.385887. The matrix had 390 distinct alignment patterns, with 13.25 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2136, C = 0.2792, G = 0.2575, T = 0.2497; substitution rates AC = 1.1074, AG = 2.0735, AT = 2.1813, CG = 0.8592, CT = 3.5964, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.9040. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Auxarthron chinense Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556412, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08431; Fig. 16

Fig. 16
figure 16

Auxarthron chinense (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19572). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–g arthroconidia; h racquet hyphae; i swollen hyphae. Scale bars: d–i 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the country where this fungus was firstly isolated.

Holotype: HMAS 247999.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 1.5–3.5 μm wide, sometimes swollen, up to 10.0 μm wide; racquet hyphae present, ‘racquet’ 4–5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidia arthroconidial, abundant, mostly intercalary, few lateral and terminal, unicellular, cylindrical, ellipsoidal or clavate with one or two truncated bases, smooth, hyaline, 4.0–7.0 (–8.0) × 2.0–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 5.3 ± 0.92 × 2.6 ± 0.25 µm, n = 50), frequently separated by 1–3 autolytic connective cells. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA 18–23 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, annular, margin dentate, cottony and white at center, pulverulent to felty and light yellow (1A2) at margin. Reverse orange (5A5) to pale orange (4A5). Colonies on OA 18–23 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, pulverulent, margin unclear, white, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse beige (28A3). Colonies on SNA 21–25 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, powdery, margin crenate, cream-yellow. Reverse cream-yellow (1A2) to white. Sporulation within 3 weeks.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247999 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19572 = LC12475; ibid., LC12477; ibid., LC12550; ibid., LC12580 (animal faeces); Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12473; ibid., LC12474; Yunnan, Mengzi, Mingjiu old Cave, N 23.487°, E 103.619°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12463.

Notes: Morphological and phylogenetic data (Figs. 15, 16) support our strains as new species of Auxarthron. Auxarthron chinense is phylogenetically closely related to A. alboluteum Sigler, Hambl. & Flis, A. compactum G.F. Orr & Plunkett and A. zuffianum (Morini) G.F. Orr & Kuehn (Fig. 15). However, A. chinense can be distinguished from A. alboluteum by less lateral and terminal conidia; from A. compactum by the hyaline conidia rather than pale yellow of A. compactum; from A. zuffianum by wider conidia (2.0–3.5 µm vs. 1.2–1.6 µm).


Auxarthron guangxiense Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556413, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08432; Fig. 17

Fig. 17
figure 17

Auxarthron guangxiense (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19634). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d ascomata; e, f peridial hyphae; g–i asci; j ascospores. Scale bars: e 50 μm; f 20 μm; g–j 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the province where the type strain was isolated.

Holotype: HMAS 247993.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 1.5–2.5 μm diam. Sexual morph Ascomata abundant, solitary or in clusters, subglobose to globose, white at first, becoming orange-brown at maturity, 250–380 μm diam. Peridial hyphae rough, thick-walled, septate, pale brown, branched and anastomosed to form a reticuloperidium, terminated by spine-like or blunt prominences, sometimes dichotomously branched, 1.5–2.5 μm diam, appendages not observed. Asci 8-spored, pyriform, subglobose or globose, hyaline, 8.5–12.0 × 6.5–9.0 µm. Ascospores oblate, smooth, hyaline, 2.5–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 3.1 ± 0.22 µm, n = 40). Asexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 26–31 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin crenate, cottony, cream-white (2A1) to yellow (2A3) at fruiting region, floralwhite at aging region. Reverse pale yellow (1A2) to goldenrod (2A3) at margin, dark brown (4D8) at center. Colonies on OA attaining 32–40 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, annular, cottony at middle, white to pale yellow (2A3) from margin to center. Reverse pale yellow (2A3). Colonies on SNA attaining 28–32 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, white to pale yellow (1B3), aerial mycelia sparse, with ascomata scattered. Reverse white to pale yellow (1B3). Sporulation within 3 weeks on SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247993 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19634 = LC12464; ibid., LC12465.

Notes: Phylogenetically, Auxarthron guangxiense is close to A. pseudauxarthron G.F. Orr & Kuehn (Fig. 15), but differs in the absence of ascomatal appendages. Morphologically, A. guangxiense is similar to A. zuffianum, whereas, the asci of A. guangxiense are larger than those of A. zuffianum (8.5–12.0 × 6.5–9.0 µm vs. 7.0–8.4 × 5.6–7.0 µm). In addition, sexual stage of A. guangxiense is absent.


Auxarthronopsis Rahul Sharma, Y. Gräser & S.K. Singh

The genus Auxarthronopsis was established by Sharma et al. (2013) and previously comprises only two species, A. bandhavgarhensis Rah. Sharma, Y. Gräser & S.K. Singh and A. guizhouensis Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai (Zhang et al. 2017). Species of Auxarthronopsis are characterized by interlaced peridium, tapering appendages with multiple swollen septa, oblate ascospores with finely punctate walls, and asexual morphs of terminal and intercalary arthro- and aleurioconidia (Sharma et al. 2013). In this study, four new species A. globiasca, A. pedicellaris, A. pulverea and A. stercicola are described (Fig. 15).


Auxarthronopsis globiasca Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556414, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08433; Fig. 18

Fig. 18
figure 18

Auxarthronopsis globiasca (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19305). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d ascomata; e peridial hyphae; f–i asci; j ascospores; k–m arthroconidia; n racquet hyphae; o connected hyphae. Scale bars: e–o 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to its globose asci.

Holotype: HMAS 247994.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 1.5–3.0 μm diam., sometimes cross connected, racquet hyphae present, up to 6 μm wide. Sexual morph Ascomata abundant, solitary or in clusters, surface powdery, subglobose to globose, pale yellow, 270–450 μm diam. Peridial hyphae septate, rough, thick-walled, pale brown, branched and anastomosed to form a reticuloperidium, terminated by short blunt prominences, 1.5–3.0 μm diam. Asci 8-spored, subglobose or globose, hyaline, 5.5–8.0 × 5.5–7.5 µm. Ascospores oblate, ellipsoidal, subglobose or globose in front view, smooth, hyaline, 2.5–3.5 × 2.0–3.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 2.9 ± 0.21 ×2.0 ± 0.24 µm, n = 50). Asexual morph Arthroconidia presented, abundant, mostly intercalary, few terminal and lateral, unicellular, cylindrical, ellipsoidal or clavate with truncated base, smooth, hyaline, 3.5–6.5 × 2.0–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.8 ± 0.73 × 2.7 ± 0.34 µm, n = 50), frequently separated by 1–3 autolytic connective cells.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 31–36 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, annular, margin fimbriate, seashell (5A2) to light yellow (4A3) from margin to center. Reverse cream-yellow (4A2) to orange at margin, brown (6D8) at middle, black (6F1) at center. Colonies on OA attaining 46–48 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, beige (4A1), aerial mycelia extremely sparse. Reverse beige (3A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 23–30 mm diam. after 4 weeks, margin rhizoids, aerial mycelia sparse, with floralwhite (30A2) ascomata scattered. Reverse ivory. Sporulation within 25 days on SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247994 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19305 = LC12472; Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12667.

Notes: Our strains form a well supported distinct clade with Auxarthronopsis species (Fig. 15). Auxarthronopsis globiasca is phylogenetically allied with A. bandhavgarhensis, A. guizhouensis and A. pedicellaris. Ascomata of A. bandhavgarhensis are white and much larger than those of A. globiasca (500–1000 µm vs. 270–450 μm). A. globiasca differs from A. guizhouensis by the presence of asexual morph. In contrast to A. globiasca, conidia of A. pedicellaris are lateral or terminal.


Auxarthronopsis pedicellaris Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556415, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08434; Fig. 19

Fig. 19
figure 19

Auxarthronopsis pedicellaris (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19318). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–h stalk-bearing arthroconidia; i arthroconidia. Scale bars: d–i 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the stalk-bearing arthroconidia.

Holotype: HMAS 248012.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 1.5–3.0 μm diam. Asexual morph Conidiophore-like stalk cylindrical, erect, straight or curved, septate, branched, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline, various in length, 1.0–2.5 μm wide. Arthroconidia abundant, lateral or terminal, stalked, occasionally sessile, unicellular, pyriform, ellipsoidal or globose with truncate base, smooth, hyaline, 3.5–6.5 × 2.0–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.8 ± 0.73 × 2.7 ± 0.34 µm, n = 50). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 26–32 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, annular, margin dentate, floralwhite (30A2). Reverse floralwhite (30A2) to bisque (7A2). Colonies on OA attaining 30–33 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin lobate, white. Reverse white. Colonies on SNA attaining 26–29 mm diam. after 4 weeks, margin entire, white, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white. Sporulation within 3 weeks.

Material examined: CHINA, Chongqing, Wulong, Erwang Cave, N 29.585°, E 108.001°, on rock, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248012 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19318 = LC12575; ibid., LC12576.

Notes: Auxarthronopsis pedicellaris is phylogenetically allied to A. bandhavgarhensis, A. guizhouensis and A. globiasca (Fig. 15), but can be distinguished by its lateral or terminal conidia and absence of intercalary conidia.


Auxarthronopsis pulverea Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556416, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08435; Fig. 20

Fig. 20
figure 20

Auxarthronopsis pulverea (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19312). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–h arthroconidia. Scale bars: d–h 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the powdery conidia on OA medium.

Holotype: HMAS 248008.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth. Asexual morph Arthroconidia abundant, mostly intercalary or terminal, few lateral, unicellular, solitary, straight or slightly curved, hyaline, intercalary conidia cylindrical, terminal and lateral conidia cylindrical or ellipsoidal with truncated base, sessile or short stalked, frequently separated by 1–3 autolytic connective cells, 3.0–6.0 × 2.0–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.5 ± 0.76 × 2.6 ± 0.36 µm, n = 50). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 25–28 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, annular, margin radially striate with lobate edge, beige (2A2) at margin, yellow (3A3-3B5) at middle, white to pale orange (3A2) in center. Reverse beige (2A2) to brown (4B8), with pale yellow (3A5) ring at middle. Colonies on OA attaining 29–34 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, powdery, white. Reverse white to beige (30A2). Sporulation within 3 weeks on OA. Colonies on SNA attaining 24–29 mm diam. after 4 weeks, margin rhizoids, white, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white.

Material examined: CHINA, Sichuan, Huaying, Liujia Cave, N 30.41°, E 106.878°, on plant debris, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248008 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19312 = LC12521; ibid., LC12522.

Notes: Auxarthronopsis pulverea is phylogenetically closely related to A. stercicola (Fig. 15). However, terminal and lateral conidia of A. stercicola are much more abundant than those of A. pulverea.


Auxarthronopsis stercicola Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556417, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08436; Fig. 21

Fig. 21
figure 21

Auxarthronopsis stercicola (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19639). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–h arthroconidia. Scale bars: d–h 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the substrate in which this species was isolated.

Holotype: HMAS 248015.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 1.0–3.0 μm wide. Asexual morph Arthroconidia abundant, intercalary, terminal, or lateral, unicellular, solitary, straight or curved, hyaline, intercalary conidia cylindrical, terminal and lateral conidia cylindrical or ellipsoidal with truncated base, sometimes irregularly swollen, sessile or short stalked, 2.5–5.0 × 2.0–3.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 3.7 ± 0.56 × 2.4 ± 0.24 µm, n = 60), frequently separated by 1–3 autolytic connective cells. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 21–26 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, annular, margin undulate, beige (30A2) at margin, white to pale orange (3A2) in center. Reverse annular, beige (30A2) to pale brown (4B6). Colonies on OA attaining 25–28 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, pulverulent, margin undulate, white. Reverse floralwhite (1A2). Sporulation within 3 weeks on OA. Colonies on SNA attaining 16–18 mm diam. after 4 weeks, radially striate with rhizoid margin, white. Reverse white.

Material examined: CHINA, Yunan, Yiliang Sanjiao Cave, N 25.134°, E 103.383°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248015 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19639 = LC12635; Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12611.

Notes: Auxarthronopsis stercicola is phylogenetically closely related to A. pulverea (Fig. 15), but can be easily distinguished (see notes of A. pulverea).


Chrysosporium Corda

Chrysosporium was introduced by Corda (1833), and revealed to be polyphyletic based on ITS phylogeny (Vidal et al. 2000). The genus currently comprises 66 species (Wijayawardene et al. 2020), most of which are saprophytic and keratinolytic isolated from various habitats such as air, sea, sludge, waste water (Zhang et al. 2016). In this study, one new species is described as Chrysosporium pallidum (Fig. 15).


Chrysosporium pallidum Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556418, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08437; Fig. 22

Fig. 22
figure 22

Chrysosporium pallidum (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19575). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d ascomata; e–h asci; i ascospores; j–l arthroconidia. Scale bars: e–l 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the color of ascomata, white to pale yellow.

Holotype: HMAS 247992.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 2.0–3.0 μm diam., racquet hyphae present, up to 6 μm wide. Sexual morph Ascomata abundant, solitary, or in clusters, cottony, globose, white initially, becoming pale yellow when aging, with conidia produced on surface, up to 750 μm diam. Peridial hyphae difficult to distinguished from aerial hyphae, septate, branched and anastomosed, terminated by short blunt prominences, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline, 2.5–4.0 μm diam. Asci 8-spored, pyriform, subglobose or globose, hyaline, 8.0–13.0 × 7.5–10.5 µm. Ascospores oblate, globose in front view, hyaline, smooth, 2.5–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 3.0 ± 0.21 µm, n = 70). Sexual morph Arthroconidia abundant, intercalary, lateral or terminal, unicellular, hyaline; intercalary conidia cylindrical or ellipsoidal with truncated base, 3.5–6.5 × 2.0–3.5 µm (mean = 6.6 ± 1.28 × 2.9 ± 0.46 µm, n = 40); lateral or terminal conidia arising from aerial hyphae directly, pyriform or clavate with truncated base, 4.0–7.0 × 2.5–4.0 µm (mean = 5.3 ± 0.73 × 3.4 ± 0.43 µm, n = 40).

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 28–34 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, annular, margin with fimbriate, ivory (1A1) to white from margin to center. Reverse ivory (1A1) to yellow (2A2) from margin to center. Colonies on OA attaining 27–30 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, annular, white. Reverse white to beige (30A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 26–29 mm diam. after 4 weeks, margin rhizoids, floralwhite (1A2), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse floralwhite (1A2). Sporulation within 3 weeks on SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247992 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19575 = LC12583; ibid., LC12670.

Notes: Chrysosporium pallidum is phylogenetically allied to C. carmichaelii Oorschot and Myriodontium keratinophilum Samson & Polon (Fig. 15). C. pallidum differs from C. carmichaelii by its more abundant intercalary conidia and sessile lateral conidia. Conidia of Myriodontium keratinophilum are lateral with short stem (conidiogenous cell), comparing with sessile lateral conidia and the presence of intercalary, lateral or terminal of C. pallidum. In addition, neither C. carmichaelii nor myriodontium keratinophilum produces sexual stage.


Class Sordariomycetes O.E. Erikss. & Winka

The classification of Sordariomycetes follw the latest treatment by Hongsanan et al. (2017) and Wijayawardene et al. (2017, 2018, 2020)


Subclass Hypocreomycetidae O.E. Erikss. & Winka


Hypocreales Lindau

Hypocreales is characterized by pigment producing, brightly coloured perithecial ascomata, and typically ostiolate perithecial fruiting body (Rehner and Samuels 1995). Asexual morphs of Hypocreales, the form most frequently encountered in nature, are moniliaceous and phialidic (Lombard et al. 2015). Hypocreales are highly diverse and currently comprise 14 families (Wijayawardene et al. 2020)


Cordycipitaceae Kreisel ex G.H. Sung et al.

Cordycipitaceae was validated by Sung et al. (2007a) to accommodate species of Cordyceps forming brightly coloured, fleshy stromata. Species of Cordycipitaceae are known as obligate saprotrophs, parasites and symbionts with insects and fungi or grasses, rushes or sedges (Phookamsak et al. 2019).


Amphichorda Fr.

Amphichorda was established by Fries (1825) with A. felina (DC.) Fr. as type. The genus is morphologically similar to Beauveria except its regular conidiogenous cells without elongate denticulate rachis. Currently there are two species in Amphichorda, and both of them are coprophilous (Zhang et al. 2017; Xu et al. 2018). We described Amphichorda cavernicola sp. nov. in this study (Fig. 23).

Fig. 23
figure 23

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Amphichorda and allied genera based on ITS sequences. Forty-nine strains are used. The tree is rooted with Parengyodontium album (IFM 57481 and IFM 64296). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 3338.441281. The matrix had 298 distinct alignment patterns, with 16 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2103, C = 0.3352, G = 0.2666, T = 0.1878; substitution rates AC = 1.0000, AG = 2.2239, AT = 1.0000, CG = 1.0000, CT = 3.4151, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.4260. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Amphichorda cavernicola Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556419, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08438; Fig. 24

Fig. 24
figure 24

Amphichorda cavernicola (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19571). a A. cavernicola on bird faeces; b–d upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 14 days after inoculation; e synnemata; f–j conidiophores, conidiogenous cells and conidia; k conidia. Scale bars: f–k 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to the cavernicolous habitat it was isolated.

Holotype: HMAS 248011.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth-walled, 1.5–2.5 µm diam. Asexual morph Synnemata arising in the center part of colonies on OA or PDA with peptone, cylindrical with apical apex, tomentose, white. Conidiophores arising laterally from hyphae, cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, occasionally branched, hyaline. Conidiogenous cells bone on conidiophores or mycelia, fusiform or ellipsoidal, straight or irregularly bent, 4.5–8.0 × 2.0–3.0 µm. Conidia holoblastic, solitary or clumped, unicellular, broadly ellipsoidal to subglobose, smooth, hyaline, 2.5–4.0 × 2.0–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 3.4 ± 0.36 × 2.8 ± 0.24 µm, n = 60). Chlamydospores and Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 9–15 mm diam. after 14 days, irregular, compact, extremely plicated and crack, cream-yellow (4A1) to seashell (30A2) in fruiting zone and tan (5A2) in aging zone, aerial mycelia sparse. Reserve compact and crack, cream-yellow (1A2) to brown from fruiting zone and tan (4E8) in aging zone. Colony on OA attaining 18–22 mm diam. after 14 days, dense, compact and plicated, margin radially striate with lobate edge, white to milk-white, with synnemata in center. Reserve pale yellow (4A2) with yellow-brown (4B8) margin. Colonies on SNA slowly growing, attaining 9–13 mm diam. after 14 days, margin entire, white, mycelia sparse, with white hyphae body. Reverse white. Sporulation within 10 days on OA and SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Sichuan, Xingwen, Feng Cave, N28.186°, E105.148°, on bird faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248011 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19571 = LC12448; ibid., LC12554; ibid., LC12577; Chongqing, Wulong, Sanwang Cave, N29.591°, E108.001°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12481; Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N24.942°, E110.511°, on plant debris, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12674; Sichuan, Xinwen, Yuguan Cave, N28.179°, E105.143°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12485; Sichuan, Xinwen, Tianliang Cave, N28.19°, E105.139°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12553; Sichuan, Huaying, Liujia Cave, N30.41°, E106.878°, on bat guano, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12638; ibid., LC12593; Sichuan, Huaying, Bijia Cave, N 30.43°, E 106.898°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12560.

Note: This new species is morphologically and phylogenetically allied to Amphichorda (Fig. 23). Amphichorda cavernicola differs from A. guana Z.F. Zhang, F. Liu & L. Cai in its smaller conidia (2.5–4.0 × 2.0–3.5 µm vs. 4.5–5.5 ×3.5–4.5 µm) and low sequence similarity (96.8% similarity, 16 base pairs (bp) difference in 504 bp of ITS; 99.2% similarity, 6 bp difference in 849 bp of LSU; 99% similarity, 7 bp difference in 884 bp of TEF; 97% similarity, 10 bp difference in 290 bp of TUB); from A. felina (DC.) Fr. in its fusiform or ellipsoidal conidiogenous cells, which are flask shaped in A. felina, and the colonies on PDA medium are also obviously different.


Gamszarea Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, gen. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556420, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08439

Etymology: “Gamszarea” named in honour of Walter Gams and Rasoul Zare, for their contributions to the taxonomic study of Lecanicillium W. Gams & Zare.

Asexual morph Conidiophores commonly arising from aerial hyphae, erect, hyaline. Conidiogenous cells discrete aculeate phialides, usually solitary or verticillate, sometimes branched. Conidia adhering in more or less globose slimy heads and of two types, macroconidia first usually and then microconidia, aseptate. Macroconidia fusiform or falcate with more or less pointed ends; microconidia ellipsoidal, falcate, lunate or reniform. Crystals occasionally observed. Sexual morph only observed in Gamszarea wallacei on the pupal host. Perithecium hyaline, delicate, smooth, obclavate to naviculate. Asci 8-spored, with a prominent cap, narrowly cylindrical with an inflated vase. Ascospores hyaline, filiform, spirally twisted in the ascus, approximately the same length as the ascus, slender, indistinctly septate.

Type: Gamszarea wallacei (H.C. Evans) Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai

Notes: Lecanicillium was introduced by Gams and Zare (2001) to accommodate the taxa with aculeate phialides that cannot be classified in the genera such as Beauveria, Isaria Pers and Microhilum H.Y. Yip & A.C. Rath, with L. lecanii (Zimm.) Zare & W. Gams as the generic type (Sung et al. 2007a; Park et al. 2015; Huang et al. 2018). While, previous studies of Cordycipitaceae based on multi-locus phylogeny showed that Lecanicillium is polyphyly (Sung et al. 2007a; Sanjuan et al. 2014; Chiriví-Salomón et al. 2015; Kepler et al. 2017), and several species of Lecanicillium, including the type L. lecanii, were transferred to genus Akanthomyces Lebert (Kepler et al. 2017). Nevertheless, several distinctly separate clades remained (Figs. 25, 26). Three of our new species clustered with L. wallacei (H.C. Evans) H.C. Evans & Zare (teleomorph synonym: Torrubiella wallacei H.C. Evans), L. kalimantanense Kurihara & Sukarno, Verticillium indonesiacum Kurihara & Sukarno and several new Lecanicillium species published recently in a single clade in Cordycipitaceae, which represented a new genus, herein named as Gamszarea (Figs. 25, 26). The most closely related genus to Gamszarea is Simplicillium Zare & W. Gams. Species of Simplicillium usually have discrete solitary phialides arising from prostrate hyphae and short-ellipsoidal to subglobose or obclavate conidia (Zare and Gams 2008). On contrary, phialides of Gamszarea are aculeate, solitary or verticillate and the dimorphic conidia are lunate, fusiform or falcate.

Fig. 25
figure 25

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Gamszarea, Lecanicillium and allied genera in Cordycipitaceae based on ITS, LSU, SSU, EF1-α, RPB1 and RPB2 sequences. Seventy-six strains are used. The tree is rooted with Volutella aeria (CGMCC3.17945 and CGMCC3.17946). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 41813.806368. The matrix had 2082 distinct alignment patterns, with 17.94 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2338, C = 0.2762, G = 0.2605, T = 0.2295; substitution rates AC = 1.4660, AG = 3.7913, AT = 0.9486, CG = 0.9281, CT = 7.8283, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.5830. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Fig. 26
figure 26

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Gamszarea, Lecanicillium and allied genera in Cordycipitaceae based on ITS sequences. Sixty-two strains are used. The tree is rooted with Volutella aeria (CGMCC3.17945 and CGMCC3.17946). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 5440.348928. The matrix had 347 distinct alignment patterns, with 14.62 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2220, C = 0.3155, G = 0.2645, T = 0.1980; substitution rates AC = 2.3755, AG = 2.4987, AT = 1.5316, CG = 0.9389, CT = 5.6398, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.5370. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Gamszarea wallacei (H.C. Evans) Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, comb. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556421, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08440

Basionym: Simplicillium wallacei H.C. Evans, Nova Hedwigia 73 (1–2): 43 (2001).

Synonym: Torrubiella wallacei H.C. Evans, Nova Hedwigia 73 (1–2): 46 (2001).

Lecanicillium wallacei (H.C. Evans) H.C. Evans & Zare, Mycological Research 112 (7): 816 (2008).

Holotype: Indonesia, Sulawesi, Dumoga Bone forest, on lepidopteran larva, IMI 331549, ex-type living culture, CBS 101237.

Notes: This species was first described as Simplicillium wallacei by Gams and Zare (2001) based on morphological features, and then transferred to Lecanicillium based on ITS analyses (Zare and Gams 2008). While, in the cladogram of Zare and Gams (2008), Lecanicillium wallacei clustered in a distinct clade between Lecanicillium and Simplicillium, which was consistent with our multi-locus analyses (Figs. 25, 26). Therefore, a new combination is proposed here, as Gamszarea wallacei.


Gamszarea indonesiaca (Kurihara & Sukarno) Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, comb. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556422, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08441

Basionym: Verticillium indonesiacum Kurihara & Sukarno, Mycoscience 50 (5): 377 (2009).

Holotype: Indonesia, East Kalimantan, Kutai National Park, on synnemata growing on a spider, BO22577, ex-type living culture, BTCC-F36 = NBRC 105408 = ID06-F0380.

Notes: Verticillium indonesiacum was introduced as a species of Verticillium Nees (Plectosphaerellaceae) based on morphological characters (Sukarno et al. 2009). However, ITS-based phylogeny suggested a close affinity to Lecanicillium (Sukarno et al. 2009), despite its verticillate phialides with branches that is more similar to Verticillium (Sukarno et al. 2009). In our phylogenetic tree of Cordycipitaceae, V. indonesiacum clustered within Gamszarea clade (Figs. 25, 26), and its solitary or verticillate phialides and the mostly falcate conidia fit well to the general features of Gamszarea, which are distinctly different from Verticillium species with mainly verticillate phialides arising below the transverse septum along conidiophores and the cylindrical to oval conidia (Inderbitzin et al. 2011). Although macroconidia and microconidia can be easily distinguished in Fig. 2i, j (Sukarno et al. 2009), condia were too few to measure the size. Gamszarea indonesiacacan be easily distinguished from other Gamszarea species by its more abundant verticillate phialides on the erect, septate and branched hyphae.


Gamszarea kalimantanensis (Kurihara & Sukarno) Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, comb. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 556423, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08442

Basionym: Lecanicillium kalimantanense Kurihara & Sukarno, Mycoscience 50 (5): 376 (2009).

Holotype: Indonesia, East Kalimantan, Kutai National Park, on exoskeleton of staphylinid-like beetle, BO22579, ex-type living culture, BTCC-F23 = NBRC 105406 = ID06-F0406.

Notes: Although the conidia of Lecanicillium kalimantanense varied significantly in size (Sukarno et al. 2009), macroconidia and microconidia can be easily distinguished (Fig. 2e–g in Sukarno et al. 2009). Based on the provided scale bars, we managed to measure the conidial size using Fig. 2g in Sukarno et al. (2009), 9.0–12.0 × 1.0–2.0 µm for macroconidia, and 4.5–7.5 × 1.0–2.0 µm for microconidia, which fitted well to the generic features of Gamszarea. Combining with phylogenetic data (Figs. 25, 26), we proposed this species as a new combination, G. kalimantanensis. It differs from other Gamszarea species in its longer conidia and more abundant verticillate phialides along the prostrate aerial hyphae.


Gamszarea restricta (Hubka, Kubátová, Nonaka, Čmoková & Řehulka) Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, comb. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557629, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08443

Basionym: Lecanicillium restrictum Hubka, Kubátová, Nonaka, Čmoková & Řehulka, Persoonia 40: 291 (2018).

Holotype: Czech Republic, Starý Bohumín, surface of the wooden barrel found during archaeological excavations, PRM 946543, ex-type living culture, CCF 5252 = CBS 143072.

Notes: Lecanicillium restrictum and L. testudineum Hubka, Kubátová, Schauflerová, Déniel & Jany were published by Crous et al. (2018), while only Lecanicillium species and two loci, ITS and EF1-α, were used in their study phylogenetic study. However, both the single and six-locus phylogeny (Figs. 25, 26) presented a highly support clade of L. restrictum and L. testudineum within the new genus Gamszarea. Meanwhile, morphological features of L. restrictum and L. testudineum, such as solitary or verticillate phialides produced on aerial hyphae, dimorphic conidia, fusiform or falcate macroconidia with pointed ends, and curved reniform with rounded ends, were consistent with the generic concept of Gamszarea. Therefore, they were proposed as new combinations, G. restricta and G. testudinea. G. restricta can be distinguished from other Gamszarea species by it lager macroconidia but smaller microconidia.


Gamszarea testudinea (Hubka, Kubátová, Nonaka, Čmoková & Řehulka) Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, comb. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557630, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08444

Basionym: Lecanicillium testudineum Hubka, Kubátová, Schauflerová, Déniel & Jany, Persoonia 40: 293 (2018).

Synonym: Lecanicillium coprophilum Lei Su, Hua Zhu & C. Qin, Phytotaxa 387 (1): 58 (2019).

Holotype: Czech Republic, Prague, scales from the carapace of the captive red-eared slider, PRM 935078, ex-type living culture, CCF 5201 = CBS 141096.

Notes: See note of Gamszarea restricta. Blastn search with ITS sequence gave an almost 100% similarity between Lecanicillium testudineum and L. coprophilum, which was supported by our phylogenetic analyses (Figs. 25, 26). Morphological features of L. testudineum and L. coprophilum were very similar, except macroconidia, pointed ends in L. testudineum but rounded ends in L. coprophilum. However, it can be clearly noticed in Fig. 2e, g, h in Su’s article that the end of macroconidia L. coprophilum were slightly pointed more than that rounded. L. coprophilum was introduced by Su et al. in (2019), a bit later than L. testudineum (Crous et al. 2018). Therefore they were combined to Gamszarea testudinea here. G. testudinea morphological differed from other species of Gamszarea by its smaller conidia (macroconidia 3.5–6 × 1.0–1.5 µm, microconidia 2.5–3 × 1.0–1.5 µm for G. testudinea; 8.5–10.5 × 1.0–1.5 µm and 4.0–5.5 × 0.7–1.2 µm for G. wallacei; 9.0–12.0 × 1.0–2.0 µm and 4.5–7.5 × 1.0–2.0 µm for G. kalimantanensis; 9.0–13.0 × 1.5–2.5 µm and 3.5–6.5 × 1.0–1.5 for G. humicola; 7.0–9.5 × 1.5–2.5 µm and 3.0–5.0 × 1.5–2.0 µm for G. lunata; 6.0–10 × 1.0–1.5 µm and 2.5–3 × 1.0–1.5 µm for Gamszarea restricta) and the present of prismatic crystals (Crous et al. 2018; Su et al. 2019).


Gamszarea humicola Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557631, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08445; Fig. 27

Fig. 27
figure 27

Gamszarea humicola (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19303). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–e conidiophores and phialides; f–g conidia in globose heads; h germinated conidia; i macroconidia and microconidia. Scale bars: d–i 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to the substrate where this fungus was isolated.

Holotype: HMAS 247987.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, 1.5–2.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiophores arising from prostrate aerial hyphae, erect, hyaline, 1.0–2.5 μm diam. Phialides arising from prostrate aerial hyphae solitary, or in whorls of 2–6 at the apex of conidiophores, erect, aculeate, tapering to the apex, hyaline, 14.0–34.0 µm long, 1.0–2.5 µm diam. at base. Conidia unicellular, long fusiform, or curved to falcate, smooth, hyaline, each phialide producing one macroconidia and several microconidia, variable in size, aggregated in slimy head; macroconidia 9.0–13.0 × 1.5–2.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 10.7 ± 1.1 × 2.0 ± 0.19 µm, n = 35); microconidia 3.5–6.5 × 1.0–1.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \)± SD = 5.1 ± 0.88 × 1.3 ± 0.15 µm, n = 50). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 31–40 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, cottony, margin slightly undulate, white. Reverse plicate, cream yellow (4A1) to light yellow (3A3). Colonies on OA attaining 44–48 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, cottony, margin entire, white. Reverse cream-white. Colonies on SNA attaining 46–50 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flocculent, margin unclear, white. Reverse white. Sporulation within 20 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247987 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19303 = LC12461; ibid., LC12462.

Notes: Gamszarea humicola is phylogenetically close to G. kalimantanensis, G. lunata and G. wallacei (Fig. 25). Morphologically, G. humicola differs from G. kalimantanensis by its mostly solitary phialides; from G. lunata by its longer macroconidia (9.0–13.0 µm vs. 7.0–9.5 µm); from G. wallacei in its wider phialides (1.0–2.5 µm vs. 0.7–1.2 µm) and macroconidia (1.5–2.5 µm vs. 1.0–1.5 µm).


Gamszarea lunata Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557632, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08446; Fig. 28

Fig. 28
figure 28

Gamszarea lunata (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19315). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–f phialides and conidia in globose heads; g conidiophores and phialides; h macroconidia and microconidia. Scale bars: d–h 10 μm

Full size image

Etymology: Referring to the shape of its microconidia.

Holotype: HMAS 247996.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, 1.0–2.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiophores arising from prostrate aerial hyphae, erect, hyaline, 1.0–2.0 μm diam. Phialides arising from prostrate aerial hyphae solitary, or in whorls of 2–4 at the apex of conidiophores, straight or slightly curved, tapering toward the apex, smooth, hyaline, 15.0–28.0 µm long, 1.0–2.0 µm diam. at base. Conidia unicellular, smooth, hyaline, each phialide producing one macroconidia and several microconidia, variable in size, aggregated in slimy head; macroconidia long fusiform or falcate, 7.0–9.5 × 1.5–2.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 8.3 ± 0.77 × 2.0 ± 0.19 µm, n = 30); microconidia mostly lunate, 3.0–5.0 × 1.5–2.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \)± SD = 3.8 ± 0.49 × 1.7 ± 0.14 µm, n = 60). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 45–48 mm diam. after 4 weeks, cottony to pulverulent, slightly convex, margin entire, white. Reverse plicated, cream white to brown (7C6). Colonies on OA attaining 46–49 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, cottony, margin entire, white. Reverse white. Colonies on SNA attaining 47–49 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, pulverulent at center, aerial mycelia sparse, white. Reverse white. Sporulation within 3 weeks.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on rock, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247996 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19315 = LC12545; ibid., LC12546.

Notes: Gamszarea lunata can be easily distinguished from G. humicola (see notes of G. humicola). Macroconidia of G. lunata is wider than G. wallacei (1.5–2.5 µm vs. 1.0–1.5 µm). In addition, microconidia of G. lunata is lunate rather than ellipsoidal to slightly falcate in G. wallacei. Conidia of G. kalimantanensis are much longer than G. lunata (macroconidia: 9.0–12.0 µm vs. 7.0–9.5 µm, microconidia: 4.5–7.5 µm vs. 3.0–5.0 µm). Meanwhile, ITS sequences of G. kalimantanensis has 98% similarity to G. lunata (nine bp difference in 515 bp).


Gamszarea microspora Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557633, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08447; Fig. 29

Fig. 29
figure 29

Gamszarea microspora (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19313). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; e conidiophores and phialides; d, f, g phialides and conidia (f branched phialides); h macroconidia and microconidia. Scale bars: d–h 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to its smaller conidia than other species in this genus.

Holotype: HMAS 248009.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 1.0–2.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiophores arising from prostrate aerial hyphae, erect, hyaline, 1.0–2.5 μm diam. Phialides arising from hyphae solitary or in whorls of 2–3, or in whorls of 2–4 lateral or at the apex of conidiophores, straight or slightly curved, tapering to the apex, sometimes branched, smooth, hyaline, 11.0–22.0 (–35.0) µm long, 1.0–1.5 µm diam. at base. Conidia unicellular, smooth, hyaline, each phialide producing one macroconidia and several microconidia, variable in size, aggregated in slimy head; macroconidia long fusiform or falcate, 4.5–6.0 × 1.5–2.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 5.1 ± 1.1 × 1.7 ± 0.15 µm, n = 50); microconidia short lunate, 2.0–3.5 × 1.0–2.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \)± SD = 2.7 ± 0.33 × 1.6 ± 0.12 µm, n = 60). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 42–47 mm diam. after 4 weeks, plicated, flocculent to pulverulent, margin entire, white. Reverse plicated, cream white to pale brown (7B4). Colonies on OA attaining 43–47 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, white. Reverse cream-white to pale salmon (6A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 44–48 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, colorless, aerial mycelia extremely sparse. Reverse colorless. Sporulation within 3 weeks on PDA and OA.

Material examined: CHINA, Sichuan, Xingwen, Tianliang Cave, N 28.19°, E 105.139°, on rock, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248009 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19313 = LC12530; ibid., LC12531.

Notes: Gamszarea microspora can be easily distinguished from most species of Gamszarea by its significantly smaller conidia and the occasionally branched phialides. G. microspora differs from G. indonesiaca in the phialides which are mostly produced on prostrating aerial hyphae, while that of G. indonesiaca are mostly at the apex of the erect hyphae (Sukarno et al. 2009).


Lecanicillium W. Gams & Zare

See short notes of Gamszarea.


Lecanicillium magnisporum Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557634, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08448; Fig. 30

Fig. 30
figure 30

Lecanicillium magnisporum (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19304). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–f phialides and conidia; g conidiophores and phialides; h macroconidia and microconidia. Scale bars: d–h 10 μm

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Etymology: Referring to its larger conidia than other species in this genus.

Holotype: HMAS 248013.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, 0.5–2.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiophores arising from aerial hyphae, erect, smooth, hyaline, 1.0–1.5 μm diam. Phialides arising from aerial hyphae solitary, or in whorls of 2–5 at the apex of conidiophores, straight or slightly curved, tapering to the apex, smooth, hyaline, 17.0–37.0 µm long, 1.0–1.5 µm diam. at base. Conidia rare, unicellular, smooth, hyaline, variable in size; macroconidia long fusiform or falcate, 9.0–16.0 × 2.0–3.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 12.3 ± 2.0 × 2.5 ± 0.29 µm, n = 45); microconidia much fewer than macroconidia, 5.0–7.0 × 1.5–2.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 5.94 ± 0.75 × 1.9 ± 0.41 µm, n = 20). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 44–48 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, felty, margin fimbriate, white. Reverse plicate, light yellow (4A2) to yellow (4A5). Colonies on OA attaining 38–40 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, cottony, margin entire, white. Reverse cream-white in center, pale rosybrown (6B3) at margin. Colonies on SNA attaining 45–47 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, tomentose, white, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white. Sporulation within 18 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Chongqing, Wulong, Erwang Cave, N 29.585°, E 108.001°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248013 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19304 = LC12468; ibid., LC12469; ibid., LC12470; Chongqing, Wulong, Sanwang Cave, N 29.591°, E 108.001°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12647; ibid., LC12663.

Notes: Lecanicillium magnisporum is phylogenetically allied to L. antillanum (R.F. Castañeda & G.R.W. Arnold) Zare & W. Gams, which belongs to one of the remaining clades of Lecanicillium (Fig. 25), but can be distinguished by the larger conidia (2.0–3.0 µm vs. 0.5–1.5 µm wide for marcoconidia, 5.0–7.0 × 1.5–2.5 µm vs. 2.0–3.5 × 0.5–1.5 µm for microconidia) and low sequence similarities (96% similarity, 23 bp difference in 524 bp of ITS; 99% similarity, 6 bp difference in 823 bp of LSU; 91% similarity, 73 bp difference in 820 bp of RPB2; 96% similarity, 38 bp difference in 912 bp of EF1-α). However, further revisions of the remaining species of Lecanicillium are required (see notes of Gamszarea).


Simplicillium W. Gams & Zare

The genus Simplicillium was introduced by Zare and Gams (2001) with S. lanosoniveum (J. F. H. Beyma) Zare & W. Gams as the type species. The genus is characterised by predominantly solitary phialides, conidial masses either in globose slimy heads, short chains, or in sympodial succession (Zare and Gams 2001; Nonaka et al. 2013). Simplicillium species are widely distributed and considered as mammal- and plant-parasitic, symbiotic, entomopathogenic, fungicolous and nematophagous fungi (Wei et al. 2019). In this study, two new species are described as Simplicillium album and S. humicola (Fig. 31).

Fig. 31
figure 31

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Simplicillium and allied genera based on ITS sequences. Thirty-seven strains are used. The tree is rooted with Gamszarea wallacei (CBS 101237). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 3470.407859. The matrix had 262 distinct alignment patterns, with 11.19 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2158, C = 0.3110, G = 0.2557, T = 0.2175; substitution rates AC = 1.5516, AG = 2.4182, AT = 1.5516, CG = 1.0000, CT = 4.4767, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.2860. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Simplicillium album Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557740, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08449; Fig. 32

Fig. 32
figure 32

Simplicillium album (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19635). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 10 days after inoculation; d–h conidiophores and phialides; i, j microconidia and macroconidia. Scale bars: d–j = 10 µm

Full size image

Etymology: Referring to the color of its white colonies on plates.

Holotype: HMAS 248003.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, 1.5–3.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiophores simple, erect, cylindrical, smooth, hyaline. Phialides arising from prostrate aerial hyphae solitary, or in whorls of 2–3 at the apex of conidiophores, erect, tapering to the apex, with basal septum, smooth, hyaline, 13.0–40.0 µm long, 1.5–3.0 µm wide at base. Conidia variable in size and shape, 1-celled, smooth, hyaline; microconidia oblong or ellipsoidal, 3.0–4.0 × 1.5–2.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 3.6 ± 0.37 × 1.7 ± 0.18 µm, n = 40), macroconidia fusiform or falcate, 8.0–11.0 (–13.0) × 2.0–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 9.7 ± 0.86 × 2.9 ± 0.31 µm, n = 20). Octahedral crystals presented. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 27–29 mm diam. after 10 days, flat, cottony, margin entire, white, light yellow secretions exuded. Reverse plicate, beige (1A1) to bisque (4A2). Colonies on OA attaining 28–31 mm diam. after 10 days, flat, cottony, margin entire, white. Reverse seashell (5A3) to wheat. Colonies on SNA attaining 30–34 mm diam. after 10 days, cottony, margin entire, white, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white. Sporulation within 10 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Laibin, Sanshan Cave, N 23.41°, E 108.931°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248003 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19635 = LC12442; Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cav, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12543; ibid., LC12557.

Notes: Simplicillium album is phylogenetically close to S. calcicola Z.F. Zhang, F. Liu & L. Cai, S. lamellicola (F.E.V. Sm.) Zare & W. Gams and S. sympodiophorum Nonaka, Kaifuchi & Masuma (Fig. 31), while S. sympodiophorum is distinguishable in producing monomorphic sympodial conidia. S. album shares similar morphological characters with S. calcicola and S. lamellicola in producing dimorphic conidia. However, S. album produces larger macroconidia (8.0–11.0 (–13.0) × 2.0–3.5 µm) than S. calcicola (4.5–8.0 × 1.0–2.0 µm) and S. lamellicola (4.5–9.0 × 0.8–1.2 µm). In addition, the octahedral crystals of S. calcicola are absent.


Simplicillium humicola Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557741, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08450; Fig. 33

Fig. 33
figure 33

Simplicillium humicola (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19573). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 15 days after inoculation; d–f conidiophores and phialides; g conidia. Scale bars: d–g 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to the substrate in which this fungus was isolated.

Holotype: HMAS 247991.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, 1.5–3.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Phialides arising from prostrate aerial hyphae solitary, or up to 2–3 in whorls, sometimes with short stalks, erect, tapering to the apex, straight or slightly curved, with basal septum, smooth, hyaline, 20.0–35.0 (–47.0) µm long, 1.5–3.0 µm wide at base. Conidia 1-celled, oblong or ellipsoidal, smooth, hyaline, 3.0–5.0 × 1.5–3.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \)± SD = 3.7 ± 0.56 × 2.3 ± 0.3 µm, n = 60). Octahedral crystals presented. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 28–31 mm diam. after 15 days, plicate, felty, margin entire, white, light yellow secretions exuded. Reverse plicate, light yellow (4A2) to brown (5C8). Colonies on OA attaining 30–36 mm diam. after 15 days, aerial mycelia abundant, fluffy, cottony, margin entire, white. Reverse floralwhite (4A2) to pale brown (7B4). Colonies on SNA attaining 30–38 mm diam. after 15 days, flat, ulotrichy, margin entire, white. Reverse white. Sporulation within 10 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cav, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247991 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19573 = LC12493; ibid., LC12494.

Notes: Simplicillium humicola is phylogenetically allied to S. formicae Nonaka, Kaifuchi & Masuma and S. obclavatum Nonaka, Kaifuchi & Masuma (Fig. 31), but morphologically differs in conidial shape and size (globose to ellipsoidal, 2.0–3.5 µm long in S. formicae; 2.5–3.5 µm long in S. obclavatum). Meanwhile, phialides of S. obclavatum are always solitary.


Nectriaceae Tul. & C. Tul.

The family Nectriaceae is characterised by uniloculate, white, yellow, orange-red or purple ascomata that change colour in KOH. The asexual morphs of Nectriaceae are phialidic, producing amerosporous to phragmosporous conidia. The majority of species are soil-borne saprobes or weak to virulent, facultative or obligate plant pathogens (Lombard et al. 2015).


Paracremonium L. Lombard & Crous

The genus Paracremonium was established to accommodate Acremonium recifei and could be distinguished from other acremonium-like genera by the formation of sterile coils from which conidiophores radiate with inconspicuously swollen septa in the hyphae (Lombard et al. 2015). However, among the currently accepted six species, P. binnewijzendii Houbraken, van der Kleij & L. Lombard, P. contagium L. Lombard & Crous, P. inflatum L. Lombard & Crous, P. moubasheri Al-Bedak & M.A. Ismail, P. pembeum S.C. Lynch & Eskalen and P. variiforme Z.F. Zhang, F. Liu & L. Cai, only P. inflatum produces sterile coils (Lombard et al. 2015; Lynch et al. 2016; Crous et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2017; Al-Bedak et al. 2019). Sterile coils is thus no longer a significant distinguishing character of the genus from allied genera. In this study, two new species named as Paracremonium apiculatum and P. ellipsoideum are described (Fig. 34).

Fig. 34
figure 34

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Paracremonium and allied genera based on ITS, LSU and TUB sequences. Thirty-seven strains are used. The tree is rooted with Stachybotrys chartarum (CBS 129.13). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 11533.136016. The matrix had 731 distinct alignment patterns, with 15.39 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2113, C = 0.2875, G = 0.2614, T = 0.2397; substitution rates AC = 0.8788, AG = 2.3877, AT = 1.0307, CG = 0.5837, CT = 4.6222, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.4430. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Paracremonium apiculatum Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557742, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08451; Fig. 35

Fig. 35
figure 35

Paracremonium apiculatum (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19309). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 15 days after inoculation; d sporulation on PDA under stereomicroscope; e–h conidiophores, phialides and conidia; i conidia. Scale bars: d 100 µm; e 20 µm; f–i 10 µm

Full size image

Etymology: Referring to its terminally apiculate conidia.

Holotype: HMAS 248078.

Hyphae hyaline, smooth, thick-walled, septate, branched, 2.0–7.0 µm diam. Asexual morph Conidiophores arising from vegetative hyphae solitary or tightly aggregated in cream-white, slimy sporulation, erect, simple or mostly branched, septate, bearing whorls of 2–6 conidiogenous cells. Conidiogenous cell terminal or lateral, straight, acicular, tapering towards apex, smooth, hyaline, 14–24 µm long, 1.5–3.0 µm wide at base, with prominent periclinal thickening and inconspicuous collarette, 1.0–1.5 µm diam. Conidia abundant, unicellular, subglobose to globose, apiculate, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline, 3.5–5.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.13 ± 0.3 µm, n = 60). Chlamydospores and Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 25–30 mm diam. after 15 days, flat, felty, margin entire, cream-white (1A1), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white to beige (30A1). Colonies on OA attaining 24–33 mm diam. after 15 days, flat, margin unclear, aerial mycelia extremely sparse, with cream-white and slimy sporulation in center. Reverse floralwhite (1A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 28–33 mm diam. after 15 days, flat, annular, margin entire, white to floralwhite, aerial mycelia extremely sparse with slimy sporulation scattered. Reverse annular, white to floralwhite (1A2). Sporulation within 10 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Yunnan, Yiliang, Sanjiao Cave, N 25.134°, E 103.383°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248078 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19309 = LC12501; ibid., LC12502.

Notes: P. apiculatum can be easily distinguished from phylogenetically allied species (Fig. 34), P. variiforme, by its smaller ellipsoidal conidia with apiculate bases, which are ovoid or elliptical in P. variiforme (3.5–5.0 µm vs. 9.0–14.5 µm). Moreover, its conidiogenous cells are much shorter than those of P. variiforme (14–24 µm vs. 18–41 µm).


Paracremonium ellipsoideum Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557743, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08452; Fig. 36

Fig. 36
figure 36

Paracremonium ellipsoideum (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19316). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 15 days after inoculation; d sporulation on PDA under stereomicroscope; e–g conidiophores, phialides and conidia; h phialides borne on aerial hyphae and conidia in globose head. i conidia. Scale bars: e–i 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to the ellipsoidal conidia of this species.

Holotype: HMAS 248016.

Hyphae hyaline, smooth, thick-walled, septate, branched. Asexual morph Sporulation abundant, white, slimy. Conidiophores arising from vegetative hyphae solitary or in clusters, erect, branched, septate, thick-walled, hyaline, apex slightly swollen. Conidiogenous cells borne on aerial hyphae solitary or in whorls of 2–6 at apex of conidiophores, straight, acicular, tapering towards apex, smooth, hyaline, 22–38 µm long, 2.5–3.5 µm wide at base, with prominent periclinal thickening and inconspicuous collarette, 1.5–2.0 µm diam. Conidia in slimy head, abundant, unicellular, ellipsoidal with apiculate bases, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline, 5.5–8.0 × 3.5–5.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 6.5 ± 0.62 × 4.2 ± 0.28 µm, n = 60). Chlamydospores and not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 33–37 mm diam. after 15 days, flat, felty, margin entire, white to cream-yellow (30A2), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white to bisque (5A2). Colonies on OA attaining 33–37 mm diam. after 15 days, flat, margin unclear, aerial mycelia extremely sparse, with cream-white and slimy sporulation in center. Reverse light yellow (1A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 32–39 mm diam. after 15 days, flat, annular, margin entire, white to light yellow (1A2), aerial mycelia extremely sparse, with slimy sporulation scattered. Reverse annular, white to light yellow (1A2). Sporulation within 10 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Yunnan, Yiliang, Sanjiao Cave, N 25.134°, E 103.383°, on sewage, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248016 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19316 = LC12551; ibid., LC12552.

Notes: Phylogenetic analysis based on ITS, LSU and TUB sequences showed that new species Paracremonium ellipsoideumwas closely related to Paracremonium inflatum and P. moubasheri (Fig. 34), but could be easily differentiated by its ellipsoidal conidia with apiculate bases, rather than the curved ellipsoidal to fusiform conidia in P. inflatum. In addition, conidiophores of P. inflatum are unbranched or rarely branched, differed from other species in Paracremonium by its branched conidiophores and ellipsoidal conidia with apiculate bases.


Microascales Luttr. ex Benny & Kimbr.

The order is characterized by nonstromatic black perithecial ascomata with long necks or rarely with cleistothecial ascomata that lack paraphyses, and globose and evanescent asci, developing singly or in chains (Réblová et al. 2011). Currently, Microascales comprise four families, i.e. Ceratocystidaceae, Chadefaudiellaceae, Halosphaeriaceae, and Microascaceae (Kirk et al. 2008; Réblová et al. 2011).


Microascaceae Luttr. ex Malloch

Microascaceae was established by Luttrell (Malloch 1970) to accommodate a morphologically heterogeneous group of fungi. Species of the family are characterised by the presence of mostly annellidic asexual morphs with dry aseptate conidia and by sexual morphs that form cleistothecial or perithecial, carbonaceous ascomata producing reniform, lunate or triangular ascospores with or without germ pores. Most species of Microascaceae are reported as saprobiont or plant pathogens, and others are opportunistic pathogens of humans and show intrinsic resistance to antifungal agents (Sandoval-Denis et al. 2016b).


Microascus Zukal

The genus Microascus was established by Zukal (1985) with M. longirostris Zukal as the type species, and the asexual morphs were traditionally included in Scopulariopsis Bainier. Several authors subsequently demonstrated by culturing, mating studies and molecular methods, that the sexual morphs of Scopulariopsis belong to the ascomycete genus Microascus (Morton and Smith 1963; Issakainen et al. 2003). Sandoval-Denis et al. (2016a) refined the generic delimitations in Microascaceae and updated their circumscriptions based on multi-locus phylogeny. Members of the newly refined Microascus were characterised by dark-coloured colonies, mostly brown to green-brown mycelia, solitary conidiogenous cells (annellides) with long and narrow annelated zone, smooth to roughened conidia, mostly ostiolate ascomata with papillate or long cylindrical necks, coloured ascospores with a single, mostly inconspicuous germ pore (Sandoval-Denis et al. 2016a). In this study, five new species named as Microascus collaris, M. levis, M. sparsimycelialis, M. superficialis and M. trigonus are described (Fig. 37).

Fig. 37
figure 37

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Microascaceae based on ITS, LSU, EF1-α and TUB sequences. Ninety-five strains are used. The tree is rooted with Graphium penicillioides (CBS 102632). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 26065.467269. The matrix had 1186 distinct alignment patterns, with 10.4 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.1959, C = 0.3221, G = 0.2677, T = 0.2142; substitution rates AC = 0.8077, AG = 2.3643, AT = 1.5854, CG = 1.0723, CT = 4.6528, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.7390. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Microascus collaris Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557744, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08453; Fig. 38

Fig. 38
figure 38

Microascus collaris (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19321). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 3 weeks after inoculation; d immersed ascoma; e ascoma; f peridium; g–i asci; j ascospores; k–n conidiogenous cells and conidia; o conidia. Scale bars: e 100 µm; f–o 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its long neck of ascomata.

Holotype: HMAS 248018.

hyphae hyaline to pale brown, septate, branched, thin- and smooth-walled 1.5–2.5 µm. Sexual morph Ascomata abundant, ostiolate, immersed or semi-immersed, subglobose or globose, black, 190–280 µm diam., 200–340 µm high, glabrous, with 1–2 cylindrical ostiolar neck, up to 250 µm, peridium with a textura angularis. Asci 8-spored, ovate to globose, hyaline, 9.0–13.5 × 8.5–12.5 µm. Ascospores triangular to lunate, smooth, thick-walled, pale yellow, 4.5–7.0 × 3.5–5.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 6.0 ± 0.59 × 4.4 ± 0.54 µm, n = 50). Asexual morph conidiophores indistinctive or simple, cylindrical, smooth-walled, pale yellow. Conidiogenous cells solitary on aerial hyphae, or clustered on conidiophores, cylindrical to ampulliform, slightly curved, smooth, pale yellow, 7.5–14.0 × 2.5–3.5 µm, with conspicuous collarette. Conidia aggregated in slimy head, ellipsoidal, smooth, hyaline to pale yellow, 4.0–6.0 × 3.0–4.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.9 ± 0.56 × 3.4 ± 0.32 µm, n = 50), with truncated base.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 10–13 mm diam. after 4 weeks, compact, convex with papillate surface, margin dentate, black, aerial mycelia extremely sparse. Reverse crack, black. Colonies on OA attaining 25–26 mm diam. after 4 weeks, surface undulate, margin entire, dark brown (5A8) to black, with black ascomata scattered. Reverse cream-colored. Colonies on SNA attaining 18–22 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin entire with rhizoids, white to grey-yellow (4A2), with black ascomata scattered. Sporulation within 20 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Laibin, Sanshan Cave, N 23.41°, E 108.931°, on plant debris, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248018 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19321 = LC12598; ibid., LC12599.

Notes: Phylogenetically, our strains nested within the Microascus clade based on ITS, LSU, TUB and EF1-α sequences (Fig. 37) and its morphological characteristics fit well to this genus, i.e. ampulliform or lageniform conidiogenous cells and smooth- and thin-walled or finely rough- and thick-walled conidia (Sandoval-Denis et al. 2016a).

Microascus collaris is phylogenetically closely related to M. trautmannii Woudenb. & Samson (Fig. 37). However, M. collaris can be distinguished from M. trautmannii by the presence of sexual stage, shorter conidiogenous cells (7.5–14.0 µm vs. 16.0–22.0 µm) and wider conidia (3.0–4.0 µm vs. 2.5–3.0 µm). In morphology, M. pyramidus resembles M. collaris but can be differentiated by its longer asci (13.0–18.0 µm vs. 9.0–13.4 µm) and wider ascospores (5.0–6.5 µm vs. 3.5–5.5 µm).


Microascus levis Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557745, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08454; Fig. 39

Fig. 39
figure 39

Microascus levis (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19308). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 3 weeks after inoculation; d–h conidiogenous cells and conidia; i conidia. Scale bars: d–i 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its smooth conidia.

Holotype: HMAS 248002.

Hyphae pale brown to brown, septate, branched, smooth- or rough-walled, 1.5–3.5 µm diam. Asexual morph Conidiophores simple, cylindrical, smooth, hyaline to pale brown. Conidiogenous cell borne laterally on aerial hyphae, or lateral or at the apex of conidiophores, ampulliform or irregular shapes, sometimes curved, smooth-walled, pale brown, 6.0–12.5×2.5–5.0 µm. Conidia arranged in chains, subglobose to globose, smooth- and thick-walled, pale brown, 5.5–8.5(− 9.5) × 5.0–8.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \)± SD = 6.8 ± 0.83 × 6.2 ± 0.79 µm, n = 55). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 23–25 mm diam. after 3 weeks, felty, compact, plicated, convex, margin entire to undulate, gray-yellow (4A2) to dark green (28E2) from margin to center, with light-colored margin. Reverse plicated, sunken, gray-yellow (4A2) to dark green (28E2). Colonies on OA attaining 32–40 mm diam. after 3 weeks, flat, white to cream-colored, margin entire, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white to cream-colored. Colonies on SNA attaining 30–34 mm diam. after 3 weeks, flat, margin entire, pale grey (30B2) to grey-yellow (30B3). Reverse pale grey (30B2) to grey-yellow (30B3). Sporulation within 15 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248002 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19308 = LC12495; ibid., LC12447.

Notes: Microascus levis is phylogenetically closely related to M. cirrosus Curzi. Whereas, the conidia of M. levis are subglobose to globose, rather than subglobose to obovate in M. cirrosus. In addition, the sexual stage of M. levis is absent. In morphology, M. levis is similar to M. restrictus Sand.-Den., Gené & Deanna A. Sutton and M. verrucosus Sand.-Den., Gené & Cano. While M. levis has larger conidia than M. restrictus (5.5–8.5(–9.5) × 5.0–8.5 vs. 4.5–6.0 × 4.0–5.5) and the conidiogenous cell of M. levis is smooth-walled rather than typically warted in M. verrucosus. Meanwhile, colonies of these three closely related species on OA are obviously different (white to cream-colored with entire and flat margin for M. levis, olive brown to brown with an irregular undulate margin for M. restrictus, olive grey with an immersed and slightly undulated margin for M. verrucosus).


Microascus sparsimycelialis Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557746, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08455; Fig. 40

Fig. 40
figure 40

Microascus sparsimycelialis (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19307). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 3 weeks after inoculation; d–g conidiogenous cells and conidia in chains; h conidia; i swollen hyphae. Scale bars: d–i 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its sparse aerial mycelia on media.

Holotype: HMAS 248006.

Hyphae pale brown to brown, septate, branched, thick-walled, 1.5–3.5 µm diam, swollen to globose sometimes, up to 10 µm diam., aerial hyphae becoming dark brown and clustered when aging. Asexual morph Conidiophores simple, cylindrical to ellipsoidal, smooth, pale brown to brown. Conidiogenous cells solitary on aerial hyphae, or in whorls of 2–3 at apex of conidiophores, ellipsoidal, ampulliform or irregular shapes, straight or slightly curved, smooth or finely roughened, pale brown to brown, 5.0–10.0 (− 14.0) × 3.0–5.0 µm, with conspicuous collarette. Conidia in long chains, ovoid to globose, smooth or finely roughened, thick-walled, pale brown, 3.5–6.0 × 3.0–5.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.8 ± 0.58 × 4.31 ± 0.55 µm, n = 60), with apical base. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 9–13 mm diam. after 3 weeks, compact, convex with crack surface, margin crenate, cream-white to grey-yellow (29D3), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse crack, pale yellow-green (29A2) with dark green (29E3) patches. Colonies on OA attaining 28–35 mm diam. after 3 weeks, flat, margin entire, dark green (28F8) with white margin, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse dark green (28F8) with white margin. Colonies on SNA attaining 34–36 mm diam. after 3 weeks, flat, margin radially striate with lobate edge, pale grey-green (28A2) to olive (30E4). Reverse light gainsboro (30E4) to dark olive (30E8). Sporulation within 15 days on OA and SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Laibin, Sanshan Cave, N 23.41°, E 108.931°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248006 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19307 = LC12478; ibid., LC12480.

Notes: Microascus sparsimycelialis is phylogenetically and morphologically closely related to M. restrictus and M. verrucosus (Fig. 37). Colonies of M. sparsimycelialis on OA are dark green with entire margin, while these of M. restrictus are olive green with irregular margin. M. sparsimycelialis differs from M. verrucosus by its smooth conidiogenous cells, rather than sparsely warted in M. verrucosus. Moreover, conidia of M. sparsimycelialis are pale brown with apical base, comparing to that being dark brown with truncate base in M. restrictus and M. verrucosus. In addition, both of M. restrictus and M. verrucosus produce solitary conidia laterally from vegetative hyphae, which is not the case in M. sparsimycelialis.


Microascus superficialis Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557747, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08456; Fig. 41

Fig. 41
figure 41

Microascus superficialis (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19638). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 3 weeks after inoculation; d, e ascoma; f peridium; g–i asci; j ascospores. Scale bars: e 100 µm; f–j 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its superficial ascomata.

Holotype: HMAS 248005.

Hyphae hyaline to pale brown, septate, branched, smooth. Sexual morph Ascomata black, superficial or semi-immersed, glabrous, ostiolate, subglobose to globose, 215–350 µm diam., with a short cylindrical ostiolar neck, peridium with a textura angularis. Asci hyaline, 8-spored, irregularly ellipsoidal to subglobose, 12.0–15.0 × 9.0–11.5 µm. Ascospores triangular, yellow-brown, smooth, thick-walled, 5.5–7.0 × 4.0–5.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 6.4 ± 0.41 × 4.8 ± 0.34 µm, n = 50). Asexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics —Colonies on PDA attaining 12–17 mm diam. after 4 weeks, compact, rugged, crack, margin undulate, cream-yellow (5A2) to red-brown (6C8), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse crack, cream-yellow (5A2) to pale red-brown (6B5). Colonies on OA attaining 30–32 mm diam. after 4 weeks, plicated, margin undulate, white to beige (4A1) with dark-grey (7C1) circle, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white to pale salmon (5A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 17–19 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, compact, margin fimbriate, beige (30A2) to pale grey (30C4). Reverse beige to pale grey. Sporulation within 20 days on OA and SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Laibin, Sanshan Cave, N 23.41°, E 108.931°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248005 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19638 = LC12597; ibid., LC12600; ibid., LC12601.

Notes: Microascus superficialis is phylogeneticly closely related to M. croci (J.F.H. Beyma) Sand.-Den., Gené & Guarro (Fig. 37), while contrast to M. superficialis, no sexual morph was observed in M. croci. Morphologically, M. superficialis shares similar sexual morph with M. pyramidus G.L. Barron & J.C. Gilman. However, ascospores of M. pyramidus have attenuated ends and often acquire a nearly square shape (Sandoval-Denis et al. 2016a). Meanwhile, M. pyramidus grows faster (40–50 mm in 4 weeks) than our new species on PDA (Barron et al. 1961).


Microascus trigonus Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557748, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08457; Fig. 42

Fig. 42
figure 42

Microascus trigonus (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19636). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 3 weeks after inoculation; d, e ascoma; f peridium; g–i asci; j ascospore; k–n conidiogenous cells and conidia; o conidia. Scale bars: e 100 µm; h 20 µm; f, g, i–o 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring the shape of the ascospores.

Holotype: HMAS 248001.

hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, thin-walled, 1.5–3.0 µm diam. Sexual morph Ascomata abundant, black, superficial, glabrous, subglobose to globose, 182–294 µm diam, with a short cylindrical ostiolar neck; peridium with a textura angularis. Asci short clavate, subglobose to globose, hyaline, 8-spored, 9.0–17 × 8.0–12 µm. Ascospores triangular, smooth, thick-walled, pale brown, 4.5–6.0 × 3.5–5.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 5.7 ± 0.43 × 4.3 ± 0.53 µm, n = 50). Asexual morph conidiophores simple, straight, septate, occasionally branched, hyaline. Conidiogenous cells solitary on aerial hyphae, or in whorls of 2–3 on apex of conidiophores, lageniform to ampulliform, straight or slightly curved, pale brown, 4.5–10.0 (−14.5) × 2.5–4.5 µm. Conidia in long chains, ellipsoidal to globose, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline to pale brown, 3.5–5.5 × 3.0–4.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.5 ± 0.47 × 3.8 ± 0.29 µm, n = 70).

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 26–30 mm diam after 3 weeks, felty, compact, plicated, convex, margin undulate, beige (30A2) to whitesmoke (4A2) with lightgrey (1C4) ring. Reverse plicated, crack, beige (30A2) to oldlace (5A2) with lightgray ring (1C4). Colonies on OA attaining 34–36 mm diam after 3 weeks, flat, margin entire, white to dark brown (5F8). Reverse white to pale brown (5B3). Colonies on SNA attaining 28–36 mm diam after 3 weeks, flat, margin fimbriate, floralwhite (1A2) to yellow-green (2A2). Reverse floralwhite (1A2) to pale yellow-green (2A2). Sporulation within 15 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248001 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19636 = LC12520; ibid., LC12513; Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12559; ibid., LC12586; ibid., LC12631.

Notes: Microascus trigonus is phylogenetically closely allied to M. chartarus (G. Sm.) Sand.-Den. (Fig. 37), but can be distinguished by the absence of sexual morph with ovate, green-brown, and frequently pointed conidia. Morphologically, M. alveolaris resembles M. trigonus. However, the conidia in M. alveolaris are ellipsoidal, navicular or bullet-shaped rather than ellipsoidal to globose in M. trigonus.


Pseudoscopulariopsis Sand.-Den., Gené & Guarro

Pseudoscopulariopsis was established to accommodate species that are generally similar to Scopulariopsis, but differs in the gray or olivaceaous colonies, ampulliform annellides and navicular to fusiform ascospores without germ pores (Sandoval-Denis et al. 2016a). Currently, this genus contains only two species. Pseudoscopulariopsis asperispora sp. nov. is described below (Fig. 37).


Pseudoscopulariopsis asperispora Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557749, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08458; Fig. 43

Fig. 43
figure 43

Pseudoscopulariopsis asperispora (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19302). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 14 days after inoculation; d–h conidiophores and conidiogenous cells; i conidia. Scale bars: d–i 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its rough-walled conidia.

Holotype: HMAS 247989.

Hyphae pale brown to brown, septate, branched, rough- and thick-walled, 1.5–3.5 µm diam. Asexual morph Conidiophores arising from hyphae, irregularly cylindrical, branched 1–3 times, smooth or slightly rough, thick-walled, hyaline to pale brown, 2.0–4.0 µm diam. at base, swollen at apex, up to 6.5 µm diam. Conidiogenous cells in whorls of 2–6 at apex of conidiophores, ampulliform or cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, smooth, thin-walled, pale brown, 5.5–10.0 (−12.0) × 2.5–4.5 µm, with inconspicuous annellidic. Conidia in long chains, subglobose to globose, rough, thick-walled, brown, 4.5–7.5 × 4.5–7.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 6.0 ± 0.67 × 5.6 ± 0.66 µm, n = 60), with truncated base. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 21–25 mm diam. after 3 weeks, low convex, margin erose, pale yellow-green (29D5) to olive (29F4), with ivory (29A2) margin. Reverse yellow-green (29D5) to olive (29F4) with ivory (29A2) margin. Colonies on OA attaining 42–45 mm diam. after 3 weeks, flat, slightly raised at center, margin erose, dark-brown (5F8) to black, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse yellow-green (29A5). Colonies on SNA attaining 18–22 mm diam. after 3 weeks, flat, margin radially striate with lobate edge, dark olive with yellow-green (29C4) margin. Reverse dark olive (29E5) with yellow-green (29C4) margin. Sporulation within 15 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247989 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19302 = LC12445; ibid., LC12446.

Notes: Pseudoscopulariopsis asperispora clustered within Pseudoscopulariopsis in a distinct clade with high support value based on the ITS, LSU, TUB, and EF1-α sequence analysis (Fig. 37). P. asperispora can be easily distinguished from P. schumacheri (E.C. Hansen) Sand.-Den., Gené & Guarro by its subglobose to globose conidia rather than obovate or short clavate in P. schumacheri; from P. hibernica (A. Mangan) Sand.-Den., Gené & Cano by shorter conidiogenous cells (5.5–10.0 µm vs. 9.0–15.0 µm).


Wardomycopsis Udagawa & Furuya

Wardomycopsis was introduced as one of the anamorph-typified genera related to Microascus, characterised by dark, globose, thick-walled conidia with germ slits that form short chains on annellidic conidiogenous cells (Udagawa and Furuya 1978; Silvera-Simón et al. 2008). Recent phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that Wardomycopsis is monophyletic (Sandoval-Denis et al. 2016a; Zhang et al. 2017). Currently, Wardomycopsis comprises fives species and we herein add three new species named as W. dolichi, W. ellipsoconidiophora and W. fusca (Fig. 37).


Wardomycopsis dolichi Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557750, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08459; Fig. 44

Fig. 44
figure 44

Wardomycopsis dolichi (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19310). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 14 days after inoculation; d, e, g–i conidiophores and conidiogenous cells; f conidia borne on hypha; j conidia. Scale bars: d–j 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its long conidiophore.

Holotype: HMAS 247998.

Hyphae hyaline to pale olive, septate, smooth or finely verrucose, thick-walled, 1.5–3.5 µm diam., sometimes swollen, up to 7.0 µm diam. Asexual morph Conidiophores cylindrical or long ellipsoidal, septate, branched 1–3 times, smooth, hyaline. Conidiogenous cells solitary on aerial hyphae, or in whorls of 1–3 at apex of conidiophores, ellipsoidal or ampulliform, hyaline, 3.5–7.5 × 2.5–4.0 µm. Conidia mostly borne from conidiogenous cells, occasionally observed on aerial hyphae directly, ellipsoidal or clavate, thick-walled, brown, 4.5–7.0 × 2.5–4.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 5.7 ± 0.72 × 3.3 ± 0.33 µm, n = 50), with truncated base and median longitudinal germ slit. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 24–28 mm diam. after 3 weeks, compact, slightly plicated, margin entire, white at margin, black at center. Reverse cream-yellow (30A2) to black. Colonies on OA attaining 28–34 mm diam. after 3 weeks, ulotrichy, low convex, margin entire, white to gray (27E1) from margin to center. Reverse white to pale gray (25B1). Colonies on SNA attaining 24–29 mm diam. after 3 weeks, ulotrichy, margin crenate, beige (2A2) to pale olive (30D8). Reverse beige (2A2) to dark olive (30E8). Sporulation within 15 days on OA and SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247998 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19310 = LC12503; ibid., LC12504.

Notes: Our strains clustered within Wardomycopsis and formed a distinct clade with high support value based on the multi-locus analysis (Fig. 37). W. dolichi is phylogenetically allied to W. longicatenata Z.F. Zhang, F. Liu & L. Cai, but differs in its wider conidiogenous cells (2.5–4.0 µm vs. 1.5–2.5 µm) and conidia (2.5–4.0 µm vs. 1.5–2.5 µm), color on PDA and SNA media, and the absence of sexual morph, which is observed in W. longicatena.


Wardomycopsis ellipsoconidiophora Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557751, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08460; Fig. 45

Fig. 45
figure 45

Wardomycopsis ellipsoconidiophora (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19322). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 14 days after inoculation; d–f, h conidiophores and conidiogenous cells; g conidia borne on hyphae; i conidia. Scale bars: d–i 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its ellipsoidal conidiophores.

Holotype: HMAS 248004.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, smooth, thick-walled, 1.5–2.5 µm diam. Asexual morph Conidiophores arising from hyphae, ellipsoidal, septate, branched 1–3 times, smooth, thick-walled, hyaline to pale olive. Conidiogenous cells solitary on aerial hyphae, or in whorls of 1–5 at apex of conidiophores, ellipsoidal, smooth, thick-walled, pale olive, 3.0–6.0 × 2.5–3.0 µm. Conidia mostly borne from conidiogenous cells, occasionally observed on aerial hyphae directly, ellipsoidal or clavate, thick-walled, olive-brown, 4.0–6.0 (− 7.5) × 2.5–4.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 5.1 ± 0.68 × 3.3 ± 0.30 µm, n = 30), with truncated base and median longitudinal germ slit. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 23–29 mm diam. after 3 weeks, compact, plicated, low convex, margin entire, white at margin, becoming tan (4C8) to cream-yellow (4A2) from middle to center. Reverse plicated, light yellow (2A1) to dark khaki (2C8). Colonies on OA attaining 29–31 mm diam. after 3 weeks, ulotrichy, flat, margin lobate, white to pale gray (1B2). Reverse pale white to pale tan (3A2). Colonies on SNA attaining 25–28 mm diam. after 3 weeks, flat, slightly plicated, margin undulate, oldlace (3A2). Reverse oldlace (3A2). Sporulation within 3 weeks on OA and SNA.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Laibin, Sanshan Cave, N 23.41°, E 108.931°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248004 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19322 = LC12606; ibid., LC12588.

Notes: Wardomycopsis ellipsoconidiophora is phylogenetically closely allied to W. fusca and W. humicola (Fig. 37), while they are morphologically distinguishable. Conidiophores of W. ellipsoconidiophora are ellipsoidal and branched, comparing to ellipsoidal to globose and unbranched in W. fusca. W. ellipsoconidiophora differs from W. humicola (G.L. Barron) Udagawa & Furuya in its slightly wider conidia (2.5–3.0 µm vs. 1.5–2.5 µm) and low sequence similarities (98% similarity, 7 bp difference in 416 bp of ITS; 99% similarity, 5 bp difference in 842 bp of LSU; 96% similarity, 35 bp difference in 928 bp of EF1-α; 95% similarity, 22 bp difference in 475 bp of TUB).


Wardomycopsis fusca Z.F. Zhang, F. Liu & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557752, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08461; Fig. 46

Fig. 46
figure 46

Wardomycopsis fusca (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19306). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 14 days after inoculation; d sporulation on SNA under stereomicroscope; e–i conidiophores and conidiogenous cells; j conidia. Scale bars: d 100 µm; e–j 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to the brown color of its conidia.

Holotype: HMAS 247997.

Hyphae hyaline to pale olive, septate, smooth, thin-walled, 1.5–2.5µm diam. Asexual morph Sporulation abundant on SNA, brown, slimy. Conidiophores arising from hyphae, ellipsoidal to globose, occasionally branched one times, smooth, thick-walled, pale olive-brown, 3.0–7.5 × 2.5–5.0 µm. Conidiogenous cells solitary on aerial hyphae, ellipsoidal, or clustered on conidiophores, ampulliform, smooth, thick-walled, pale olive-brown, 3.0–5.0 (−6.0) × 2.5–3.5 µm. Conidia ellipsoidal, thick-walled, brown, 4.0–6.5 × 2.5–3.5 µm (\( \bar{x} \)± SD = 5.1 ± 0.62 × 3.0 ± 0.32 µm, n = 30), with truncated base and median longitudinal germ slit. Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 25–31 mm diam. after 3 weeks, felty, compact, convex, margin entire, pale olive (29A3) to grey (28B3), with light colored margin. Reverse sunken in center, cream-yellow (29A3) to olive (29D4). Colonies on OA attaining 26–28 mm diam after 3 weeks, flat, margin entire, white to dark olive (29F5), with olive rings (29F5). Reverse white to pale olive (29B2). Colonies on SNA attaining 23–28 mm diam after 3 weeks, flat, slightly plicated, margin entire, beige (28A2) to pale olive (29D4). Reverse beige (28A2) to dark olive (29F6). Sporulation within 15 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247997 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19306 = LC12476; ibid., LC12526; Guangxi, Guilin, E’gu Cave, N 24.942°, E 110.511°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12636; Yunnan, Mengzi, Mingjiu old Cave, N 23.487°, E 103.619°, on animal faeces, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12607; ibid., LC12661; Yunnan, Yiliang, Sanjiao Cave, N 25.134°, E 103.383°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, LC12643.

Notes: Wardomycopsis fusca is phylogenetically and morphologically closely related to W. ellipsoconidiophora and W. humicola (Fig. 37), but differs in ellipsoidal or globose and mostly unbranched conidiophores. Contrast to W. fusca, W. ellipsoconidiophora and W. humicola have cylindrical to ellipsoidal and branched conidiophores.


Subclass Sordariomycetidae O.E. Erikss. & Winka


Calosphaeriales M.E. Barr

The Calosphaeriales is an order of perithecial ascomycetous fungi with allantoid to suballantoid ascospores and characteristic ascogenous hyphae, ascogenous cells and centrum, considered unique among the ascomycetes (Réblová et al. 2015). The order traditionally comprises wood-inhabiting perithecial ascomycetes that occupy specialized habitats between wood and periderm (Réblová et al. 2015).


Calosphaeriaceae Munk

The family was introduced by Munk (1957), followed by several recent revisions (Damm et al. 2008). Members of the Calosphaeriaceae share a set of typical characters such as globose to subglobose dark ascomata with a central neck, hyaline, non-septate or one to several transverse septa, 8-spored, clavate, tapering, stipitate asci. The asci have a conspicuous, symmetrical thickening at the apex, which lacks a visible discharge mechanism (Réblová et al. 2015). Calosphaeriaceae members are typical inhabitants of wood and bark of a broad spectrum of trees and shrubs worldwide, including Prunus wood (Barr 1985).


Jattaea Berl.

Berlese (1900) introduced genus Jattaea with J. algeriensis Berl. as generic type. Jattaea was recently revised based on a five-locus phylogeny (Réblová et al. 2015) and 18 species are currently accepted (Réblová et al. 2015; Dayarathne et al. 2017). The members of Jattaea are characterized by non-stromatic perithecial ascomata, clavate and stipitate asci with a thickened apex and distinct sporiferous part, persistent paraphyses and allantoid, 1-septate, hyaline ascospores. Asexual morphs of Jattaea are phialophora-like, i.e. short-ampulliform to elongate-ampulliform phialides or adelo-phialides with funnel-shaped collarettes (Réblová et al. 2015; Dayarathne et al. 2017). In this study, one new species Juttaea reniformis is described (Fig. 47).

Fig. 47
figure 47

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Jattaea and allied genera based on ITS, LSU and TUB sequences. Twenty-nine strains are used. The tree is rooted with Phaeoacremonium minimum (CBS 246.91) and P. novae-zealandiae (CBS 110156). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 12288.310004. The matrix had 764 distinct alignment patterns, with 21.23 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.2144, C = 0.3000, G = 0.2795, T = 0.2061; substitution rates AC = 1.3366, AG = 2.3273, AT = 1.3366, CG = 1.0000, CT = 4.0395, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.4960. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Jattaea reniformis Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov., Fig. 48

Fig. 48
figure 48

Jattaea reniformis (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19311). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 4 weeks after inoculation; d–j phialides and conidia in globose heads; k conidia. Scale bars: d–k 10 μm

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Index Fungorum number: 557753, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08462; Fig. 48

Etymology: Referring to its reniform conidia.

Holotype: HMAS 247995.

Hyphae hyaline, septate, branched, smooth, 1.5–3.5 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiophores micronematous, reduced to conidiogenous cells. Phialides arise from prostrate aerial hyphae solitary, lateral, monophialidic, long ampulliform to tapering, smooth to slightly granulate, hyaline, various in length, 4.5–11.5 µm long, 1.5–3.0 µm diam. at base, with conspicuous collarette, tapering to 1.0–1.5 µm below the collarette; adelophialides subcylindrical or ampulliform, 1.5–3.0 µm × 1.0–2.0 µm. Conidia aggregated in globose heads, cylindrical to reniform, unicellular, smooth, hyaline, various in size, 3.0–6.0 × 1.0–2.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 4.2 ± 0.66 × 1.5 ± 0.21 µm, n = 60). Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 32–38 mm diam. after 4 weeks, plicated, margin entire, pale linen (5A2), aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse plicated, cream-white to yellow (4A7). Colonies on OA attaining 32–36 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin entire, white at margin, light gray (4B2) at middle, gainsboro (4A2) in center, aerial mycelia sparse. Reverse white to gainsboro (4B2) with gray ring (4B2). Colonies on SNA attaining 35–38 mm diam. after 4 weeks, flat, margin erose, white, aerial mycelia extremely sparse. Reverse white. Sporulation within 3 weeks.

Material examined: CHINA, Yunnan, Yiliang, Sanjiao Cave, N 25.134°, E 103.383°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 247995 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19311 = LC12509; ibid., LC12510.

Notes: This species should be classified into genus Jattaea, because it fits well to the asexual morphs of Jattaea, i.e. short-ampulliform to elongate-ampulliform to cylindrical phialides or adelo-phialides, tapering, with a more or less conspicuous funnel-shaped collarette (Réblová 2011; Réblová et al. 2015). Meanwhile, our strains are phylogenetically allied with Jattaea species based on ITS, LSU and TUB sequences (Fig. 47). Jattaea reniformis is currently known only for its asexual morph and comparable with J. aphanospora Réblová & J. Fourn., J. ribicola Réblová & Jaklitsch and J. tumidula (Sacc.) Réblová. While J. reniformis differs from J. aphanospora and J. ribicola by the presence of phialides and adelophialides, whereas only adelophialides are observed in J. aphanospora and J. ribicola. J. reniformis differs from J. tumidula by its subcylindrical or ampulliform adelophialides and wider conidia (1.0–2.0 µm vs. 1.0–1.2 µm); meanwhile only subcylindrical adelophialides was observed in J. tumidula. Generally J. reniformis is well distinguishable from other species in Jattaea by the absence of conidiophores.


Subclass Xylariomycetidae O.E. Erikss. & Winka


Xylariales Nannf.

The order Xylariales was established by Nannfeldt (1932), and have been revised in several recent studies (Daranagama et al. 2018; Voglmayr et al. 2018; Wendt et al. 2018), with three families Barrmaeliaceae Voglmayr & Jaklitsch, Graphostromataceae M.E. Barr, J.D. Rogers & Y.M. Ju and Hypoxylaceae DC. included and revised. Xylariales is one of the largest order of the subclass Xylariomycetidae, which currently comprises 22 families (Wijayawardene et al. 2020).


Apiosporaceae K.D. Hyde, J. Fröhl., Joanne E. Taylor & M.E. Barr

Apiosporaceae was introduced by Hyde et al. (1998) and confirmed as a family within Xylariales, closely related to Amphisphaeriaceae (Crous and Groenewald 2013).


Nigrospora Zimm.

Nigrospora was introduced by Zimmerman (1902) and most recently revised by Wang et al. (2017). Nigrospora is characterized by branched micronematons or semi-macronematous conidiophores, monoblastic condiogenous cells and black, shiny, aseptate condia. Sexual morphs comprise perithecial ascomata, short-stalked asci with biseriated ascopsores (Wang et al. 2017). Species of Nigrospora are cosmopolitans with wide host range, and reported as endophytes, saprobes, or pathogens on crops or humans (Wang et al. 2017; Raza et al. 2019). In this study, one new species Nigrospora globosa is described based on ITS, EF1-α and TUB phylogeny (Fig. 49).

Fig. 49
figure 49

Maximum likelihood (ML) tree of Nigrospora based on ITS, EF1-α and TUB sequences. Twenty-three strains are used. The tree is rooted with Arthrinium vietnamense (IMI 99670). Tree topology of the ML analysis was similar to the BI. The Best scoring RAxML tree with a final likelihood value of − 8201.629166. The matrix had 573 distinct alignment patterns, with 12.71 % of undetermined characters or gaps. Base frequencies estimated by jModelTest were as follows, A = 0.1979, C = 0.3209, G = 0.2348, T = 0.2463; substitution rates AC = 1.0000, AG = 3.4930, AT = 1.0000, CG = 1.0000, CT = 4.4017, GT = 1.0000; gamma shape = 0.2080. ML bootstrap values (≥ 70 %) and Bayesian posterior probability (≥ 90 %) are indicated along branches (ML/PP). Novel species are in bold font and “T” indicates type derived sequences

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Nigrospora globosa Z.F. Zhang & L. Cai, sp. nov.

Index Fungorum number: 557754, Facesoffungi number: FoF 08463; Fig. 50

Fig. 50
figure 50

Nigrospora globosa (from ex-holotype CGMCC3.19633). a–c Upper and reverse views of cultures on PDA, OA and SNA 6 days after inoculation; d condia under stereomicroscope; e–h conidiogenous cells and conidia; i conidia. Scale bars: d 100 µm; i 20 µm; e–h 10 µm

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Etymology: Referring to its globose conidia.

Holotype: HMAS 248000.

Hyphae hyaline to pale brown, septate, branched, smooth, 1.5–8.0 μm wide. Asexual morph Conidiophores reduced to conidiogenous cells. Conidiogenous cells arising from aerial hyphae solitary or aggregated in clusters, cylindrical, ampulliform, ellipsoidal or subglobose, straight or curved, smooth, hyaline to pale brown, 8.5–22.0 × 5.0–9.0 µm. Conidia solitary, unicellular, subglobose to globose, smooth, dark brown to black, shiny, 11.0–14.5 × 9.0–13.0 µm (\( \bar{x} \) ± SD = 13.0 ± 0.84 × 11.3 ± 1.0 µm, n = 60). Sterile cells and Sexual morph not observed.

Culture characteristics—Colonies on PDA attaining 38–41 mm diam. after 6 days, flat, floccose, radially striate with lobate edge, white initially, becoming pale gray with age. Reverse white to light yellow (2A2) initially, becoming pink (5A2) to brown (5B3) with age. Colonies on OA attaining 50 mm diam. after 4 days, flat, aerial mycelia abundant, floccose, margin entire, white initially, becoming gray (4B2) with age. Reverse white initially, becoming pink (5A2) with age. Colonies on SNA attaining 38–41 mm diam. after 6 days, flat, margin entire, white to pale yellow (3A3) initially, then becoming pale gray with gray (4B2) sporulation patches. Reverse white to pale yellow (4A1-4A2). Sporulation within 7 days.

Material examined: CHINA, Guangxi, Guilin, Luotian Cave, N 24.948°, E 110.524°, on soil, May 2016, Z.F. Zhang, HMAS 248000 (holotype designated here), ex-type living culture CGMCC3.19633 = LC12440; ibid., LC12441.

Notes: Our two strains representing N. globosa clustered with N. chinensis Mei Wang & L. Cai in a distinct clade (Fig. 49). Morphologically, N. globosa differs from N. chinensis by its larger conidiogenous cells (8.5–22.0 × 5.0–9.0 µm vs. 5.0–9.5 × 4.0–7.0 µm), and the absence of sterile cells in N. globosa.

Discussion

Karst area covers ca. 20% of the terrestrial area on the earth (Ford and Williams 2013), and there are more than a half million karst caves in China (Chen 2006; Zhang and Zhu 2012). According to Hawksworth and Lücking (2017), there are more than 120,000 hitherto described fungal species, but the estimation of global fungal diversity on the earth is 2.2 to 3.8 million. However, only 1626 fungal species were documented from caves and mines worldwide. Our study revealed that karst caves encompass a high fungal diversity, with a number of undescribed species.

Up to now, nine phyla have been reported in cave environments, and five phyla were obtained in this study. The proportion of species of Ascomycota, 88.0 % in this study, and 75.8 % in caves worldwide, is much higher than other phyla including Basidiomycota (Fig. 3a, e). In addition, the majority of genera with high species diverse (> 10 species) in caves are Ascomycota (Fig. 3f). In cave Basidiomycota is rare possibly because they are difficult to culture and often need to be associated with nutrient rich substrates such as wood and dung (Vanderwolf et al. 2013), while these organic matters are much exiguous compared to a regular terrestrial environment. Glomeromycota, a phylum of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (Schüßler et al. 2001) never reported from caves in previous studies, was obtained in this study from soil sample of Sanjiao Cave (Table S1). Meanwhile, in our another study on fungal community based on high-throughput sequencing (HTS), Glomeromycota accounts for ca. 0.3% of all fungal OTUs in caves, and soil and water samples encompass more abundant reads of Glomeromycota than air and rock samples (Zhang and Cai 2019), which might due to the higher nutrient concentrations in soils (Vanderwolf et al. 2013) and a better link of water sample inside caves and the forest reservoir outside the caves (Voříšková and Baldrian 2013).

The most commonly recorded fungal genera in worldwide caves are cosmopolitan ones, especially Penicillium and Aspergillus, two genera discovered in all the caves investigated (Fig. 3c, f). Due to their diverse physiological features, species of Penicillium and Aspergillus are ubiquitous and can grow on almost all types of habitat, including the subsurface environments (Houbraken et al. 2014). Although Mortierella and Mucor had been reported from many caves, Vanderwolf et al. (2013) suggested that the incidence of Zygomycota, mainly Mortierella and Mucor, in caves might be overestimated due to the bias of detecting method. However, several studies using metabarcoding method did detect high relative abundance of Zygomycota (up to 49.8% when endogenous carbon available) in tourism caves and pristine caves (Cloutier et al. 2017; Pfendler et al. 2019; Zhang and Cai 2019). Therefore, the culture-based method may not be as biased as previously speculated (Zhang and Cai 2019). Several studies demonstrated that fungi in caves with fast growth and abundant spore production, including Penicillium, Aspergillus, Mortierella and Mucor, were sensitive to the changes of organic matters or human activates (Min 1988; Docampo et al. 2010, 2011; Jurado et al. 2010; Vanderwolf et al. 2013), indicating a predominantly saprobic lifestyle and potentially exogenous origin. According to the summary of Vanderwolf et al. (2013), Rhachomyces was widespread and thirty-two species, as insect coloniners, had been reported in caves, which was however, not recorded here possibly because only very few insect samples were collected in this study.

Cave systems were suggested to be a good harbour for the development and preservation of allochthonous microorganisms, such as mycorrhizal and pathogenic fungi (Kuzmina et al. 2012; Vanderwolf et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2017; Zhang and Cai 2019). Many fungi obtained in this study are plant endophytic or pathogenic. For example, Entrophospora R.N. Ames & R.W. Schneid., isolated from soil in Sanjiao Cave, was reported as an AM fungi (Schüßler et al. 2001; Palenzuela et al. 2010). Fusarium graminearum Schwabe, a plant pathogen that causes head blight of wheat (Bai and Shaner 2004), was isolated from soil and water samples of Mingjiu Old Cave and Tianliang Cave. Many species of Colletotrichum Corda, Diaporthe Nitschke, Fusarium and Phoma Sacc. complexes obtained in this study are also known as plant pathogenic fungi. Myriodontium keratinophilum, an occasional human and animal pathogen widely spread in nature (Maran et al. 1985; Domsch et al. 2007), was isolated not only in this study, but also from several other caves in previous studies (Man et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2017; Nováková et al. 2018). Many of these fungi may not grow in the cave environment, but are present rarely or regularly as spores, carried in by water, air currents, or animals (Vanderwolf et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2017).

Studies had revealed that fungi in caves might be originated from outside environments, since the majority of fungi documented in caves have been reported from other environments such as soil and forest (Vanderwolf et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2017). All genera and most species recorded in this study have also been reported from other environments. Although there are several suspected obligate troglobitic fungi exist in caves, and several were also observed in this study, such as Aspergillus spelunceus Raper & Fennell, A. thesauricus Hubka & A. Nováková, Trichosporon akiyoshidainum Sugita, Takshima & Kikuchi and T. chiropterorum Sugita, Takshima & Kikuchi, it needs further investigation to confirm if these have a troglobitic nature (Vanderwolf et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2017, 2018). Although a number of new species have been discovered in caves, no new genera or families were reported (Zhang et al. 2017). Zhang et al. (2018) estimated the divergence time of suspected obligate troglobitic fungi and found that they were obviously much older than the cave formation geologic age. In other words, the geologic age of caves is too short for fungal speciation and these fungi are unlikely troglobitic fungi but travelers from other environments.

Caves are special environments with a number of potentially highly valuable fungal species that have been the targets for drug discovery (Cheeptham 2012; Rawat et al. 2017). According to Vanderwolf et al. (2013), there are still 14 potential troglobitic cave fungi. Four new oligotrophic fungi using carbon free silica gel medium (SGM) and 20 new fungal taxa from two caves in Guizhou, China were published by Jiang et al. (2017a, b) and Zhang et al. (2017), respectively. Amphichorda felina (syn. Beauveria felina (DC.) J.W. Carmich., Isaria felina (DC.) Fr.), a species known in producing insecticidal cyclodepsipeptide (Baute et al. 1981; Langenfeld et al. 2011; Seifert et al. 2011) and Cyclosporin C (Xu et al. 2018), is widely distributed in caves (Vanderwolf et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2017; Belyagoubi et al. 2018), as well as this study. Meanwhile, the other two coprophilous species in Amphichorda were isolated in this study, and they may have good potential for the investigation of bioactive natural products. Trichoderma harzianum, a species that has been used as biocontrol agents against fungal diseases of plants (Elad et al. 1982; Felse and Panda 1999), was isolated from soil and organic matters. Another example is Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. isolated from four caves in this study and several times in other studies (Ogórek et al. 2013, 2014b, Vanderwolf et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2014; Yoder et al. 2015), is a species widely used as insecticide (Feng et al. 1994; Zimmermann 2007; Xiao et al. 2012).

Conclusions

Our investigation reveals that karst caves from southwest China encompass a high fungal diversity, with a number of previously undescribed species. Most species identified in this study have been reported from other environments, indicating that the outside environment is likely a major source of mycobiota in caves. Based on morphological and phylogenetic distinctions, 33 new species scattered in seven different orders were identified and described. One new genus is proposed. This study significantly improved our understanding on fungal species diversity in caves. Further studies incorporating metagenomics and culture method could possibly provide broader and more comprehensive overview on fungal communities and their ecological roles in caves.