Shadow education is largely considered as an informal part of the educational system in many countries, including the Philippines. Shadow education pertains to outside-school learning activities that resembles those of formal school and often used by students to increase their educational opportunities (Baker, Akiba LeTendre et al. 2001). Likewise, (Buidiene, Silova and Bray 2006) referred to it as a fee-based instruction of academic school subjects as supplementary to the instruction given in mainstream education.

Sometimes known as private tutoring or simply tutoring or private tuition, this form of educational assistance is described as shadow as it only exists because mainstream education exists. Likewise, it serves as a mirror image of mainstream education where changes in the mainstream are often reflected in shadow education. Furthermore, it is termed shadow because despite its increasing growth and popularity, majority of society still focuses on mainstream education. Finally, its features are less distinct than those of mainstream education (Bray 2005). In terms of coverage, shadow education may be administered by the actual school where the student belongs or an independent study or tutorial center established solely for that purpose. These activities go well beyond the routine homework and assignments and instead they are organized and structured learning activities that take on school-like processes (Baker et al. 2001). It can be administered in small groups or individually by qualified instructors (Buidiene et al. 2006) where the objective can either be remedial or enhancement; it is remedial if the purpose is to assist low achieving students in their studies with the goal of making them at par with the performance of others in their class or other comparable groups and it is enhancement if it is to ensure that students would either maintain or surpass his or her current performance (Tan 2009; Watson 2008; Bray 1999).

Its increasing popularity has made shadow education a frequent topic of researchers. Current research on shadow education includes its nature or current state, impact or effect on education and its related policy, how it affects the economy via household expenditures, and how shadow education can help improve the performance of students.

Studies on its impact would include that of (Schacter 2000), where the results show that students who work in groups or have been individually tutored learned and achieved more. Similar results were obtained by Dang (2007) in a study involving Vietnamese students where private tutoring was able to enhance academic achievement. Research also shows that tutoring lessons have caused an increase in test scores in India (Banerjee, Cole Duflo et al. 2007). In Korea where private education is very common, researchers have reported positive effects (Schacter 2000). Similar results were found in Japan (Stevenson and Baker 2001) and Vietnam (Ha and Harpham 2005). Aside from increase in test scores, after school programs like shadow education also had effects on promoting active engagement in other learning activities (Bae, Oh Kim et al. 2010).

Not all effects are positive though as contrasting views have also been found in research literature where no effect of private tutoring was revealed (Jung and Lee 2010). Negative effects were also found in Singapore (Cheo and Quah 2005). The different effects could be a result of the manner to which students participated in shadow education activities, the time frame or duration involved and the type of student in terms of innate abilities (Bae et al. 2010). Literature on effects is not limited to scholastic achievement. Bae et al. (2010) highlighted social and emotional development as another benefit of out of school programs. According to them, sustained participation “has a positive impact on social-emotional adjustment, self-efficacy and confidence, and conflict resolution skills” (p. 351). In addition, Grossman et al. (2002) and Vandell et al. (2006) discussed that participation is also positively related to the attitude of students towards schooling and studies in general through improved work habits, increased school attendance, and lessened negative attitudinal outcomes of students. Similarly, a study by Karcher (2005) found that experiences with the mentor best accounted for changes in the areas of self-management, self-esteem, and social skills and not solely exposure to the curricula.

Shadow education’s effect can also be found in other areas; research in Hong Kong and Mongolia found an association between it and socio-economic patterns that includes reasons for availing shadow education and the year level of students (Buidiene et al. 2006; Bray and Kwok 2003). In South Korea, Byun (2010) reported a relationship between shadow education and a family’s income where South Korean families appear to be burdened by the need for shadow education because of disparities among schools in terms of student admission favoring those with private tutors. The same concern was noted in Vietnam where it appears that those students who are into private tutoring have an advantage in admission to schools over those who are not as such shadow education appears to have an impact on the household expenditure of families (Dang 2007).

Shadow education or private tutoring is not only common in Asia, according to Aurini and Davies (2003). Various forms of private tutoring have been growing in Canada. In their research that focused on the transformation of private tutoring, they have reported that in the city of Ontario, private tutoring can be considered as a massive growing industry that resulted to the evolution of traditional shadow education entities into learning center franchises that develop their own curriculum and assessment tools (Aurini and Davies 2003). There now appears to be a depart from the original nature of shadow education into learning opportunities that aims to provide a fuller alternative to mainstream education. According to Davies (2004) the growth of private tutoring is not equated to a real need because the Canadian educational system lacks the characteristics that spark a demand for those services just like in other countries. The result of his study suggests that the reason for the increase is the link between the growth of private tutoring and school choice, which is largely influenced by parents (Davies 2004).

(Buidiene et al. 2006) conducted a study that dealt with the nature, causes and consequences of private tutoring in eight European countries (Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Georgia, Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine). They reported a number of negative consequences of private tutoring that includes social inequities, distorted curricula, unsatisfactory teacher performance in mainstream schools, corruption, skewed university admission process, and a decline in state tax revenues. In terms of its nature, majority of those surveyed avail of private tutoring in their final year of secondary school and in Azerbaijan and Georgia, 60 and 50% of the respondents respectively believe that the only way to get high quality education is through private tutoring. Likewise, participants in Azerbaijan and Ukraine also reported that those students who availed of private tutoring are treated better by teachers.

The above review of literature provided a comprehensive look at the nature, objectives and effects of shadow education. Shadow education has been inexistence for sometime and has been continuously growing in almost all parts of the world and documentation on its effect on the economy, family monthly income and student performance is readily available but what is noticeably absent or there appears to be a lack of, are literatures that focus on the possible psychological effect of shadow education. This was also observed by Baker et al. (2001); according to them, shadow education research “has been limited to assessments of their impact on educational achievement of students, or on related outcomes such as education inequality across family socio-economic status” (p. 2).

Notwithstanding this, it cannot be discounted that other aspects of a learner’s or student’s welfare can be affected by exposure to shadow education activities. Hence, the present investigation where the focus is on determining how shadow education can affect the other aspects of a student’s welfare. This approach would be beneficial to educational psychology as this area of study is much concerned with a student’s ability to learn effectively and the ways than can help promote effective learning (Donald, Lazarus and Lolwana 2003).

Research Objectives

The purpose of the study is to present a unique experience on how exposure to shadow education activities may affect the academic life of high school students. Based on the review of literature, little is known about this area thereby giving rise to the motivation for the present investigation. Specifically, it will look into the impact of the exposure on the areas of whether shadow education has helped the students in their academic achievement or accomplishment, and whether it was able to promote a positive attitude towards their studies and their self in general. All of these are depicted in the research paradigm found in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
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Research paradigm on the impact of shadow education

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For its framework, the study is anchored on the classical psychological theory of learning that views the process as an intervening variable for behavioral change. According to Hergenhahn and Olson (2005), learning is studied as a way of making inferences about its resulting behavior, as it cannot be studied directly. Learning is seen as a process that mediates behavior and usually occurs as a result of certain experiences that precedes changes in behavior. See Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
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The learning paradigm

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In relation to the present investigation, the researcher believes that the learning paradigm will best explain the role of shadow education as catalyst for behavioral change. The following concept is put forth wherein the reason or motivation for availing shadow education (either remedial or enhancement) serves as the experience of the high school students that is pertained to in the learning paradigm. This leads them to avail of shadow education where the learning takes place via the assistance provided by their tutors. The result of which is a significant change in behavior reflected in the three areas of academic life depicted in Fig. 1. General attitude towards studying and learning pertains to a change from a negative attitude to positive as the participants begin to see the value and benefits of studying and learning. Academic accomplishment is related to the gains of the high school students as a result of shadow education. This may be exhibited in terms of increase in grade, participation in class and other activities. Finally, self or well-being is associated to changes in beliefs and attitudes of the participants towards his or her ability to perform school related tasks.

Method

Research Design

To assess the impact of shadow education on the academic life of the participants, the researcher chose a unique method known as Q-methodology. According to Dziopa and Ahern (2011), this method incorporates the benefits of both qualitative and quantitative research and is best described as quali-quantilogical. “The Q-methodological design was developed by psychologist and physicist William Stephenson of the University of Oxford” (De Guzman et al. 2011; p.6) and is largely concerned with the individual viewpoints of the participants. The objective is to create an opportunity for participants to express their opinion on a certain topic or construct (Dziopa and Ahern 2011). Basically, it explores patterns in individuals’ subjectivities by revealing correlation in viewpoints among respondents (De Guzman et al. 2011). In this method, the participants are provided with a set of stimuli (Q- sample), which they rank (Q-sort) accordingly. The result of the sorting is then analyzed via a by-person factor analysis (Dziopa and Ahern 2011).

Selection of participants

The study made use of two sets of respondents to gather the data needed to complete the project. The first set (n = 17) was selected high school students from the National Capital Region of the Philippines who have been exposed to shadow education activities for at least a year. They were conveniently selected based on their willingness to participate. The first set of respondents was given the initial interview form during the early stage of the research. The second set (n = 30) were also selected high school students, from the same region, with the same length of exposure to shadow education activities. They were also conveniently selected and participated in the research by performing the actual sorting of the Q-sample. All participants (both sets) came from private high schools and belongs to families with middle class income. In terms of sex, majority of the respondents are males (10 for the 1st set and 18 for the 2nd set).

The number of participants in the study is low compared to other methodologies because according to Dziopa and Ahern (2011), a Q-study does not require a large number of participants “as the aim of the process is to explicate some of the key opinions of a selected participant group” (p.41). There are instances wherein the focus of Q-researches is a single case only and that “highly relevant results can be obtained with far fewer participants” (p. 41).

Finally, to have a more solid basis for the number of participants, the researchers made use of the formula developed in Thompson, Frankiewicz and Ward 1983 According to their research, the formula to determine the acceptable minimum number of participants for this methodology is:

Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedure

Data needed in the study were gathered using the initial interview form and the Q-set. The first stage of the procedure focused on the initial interview of 17 participants. The goal of the interview was to elicit from them their views as to how shadow education activities impacted or affected their academic life. Their responses were then analyzed and interpreted and became the basis in the development of the Q-concourse (made up of 48 statements) that will be used in the Q-analysis (Raje 2007). The initial interview focused on the central question that asked the participants to discuss what they think changed in themselves because of their exposure to shadow education activities. The whole process was done individually and lasted between 30 to 45 min per participant. The statements were then categorized according to their themes or commonality; namely (1) Social (related to interactions and other social aspects), (2) Academics (related to schoolwork) and (3) Self (perceived impact is centered on changes of oneself in terms of general personality). See Table 1.

Table 1 Major themes of the Q-sample
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The statements were printed on small cards in preparation for the Q-sorting. The Q-sort was done individually where the participants were asked to arrange the statements on the Q-sort table using the scale of 1 to 9 as a guide. The scale represents the degree of agreement with 1 indicating the least agreement to the statement and 9 as the strongest agreement. Figure 3 is the Q-sort table that was used in the present investigation.

Fig. 3
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Q-sort table

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Ethical Considerations

Before the actual data gathering procedure, all participants were oriented about the purpose and significance of the study. Their verbal consent to become participants of the present investigation were secured and they were likewise informed that should they change their minds, they could always withdraw as participants of the research. During the data-gathering phase, ample time was given to each participant to respond during the interview and to perform the sorting during the Q-sort phase.

Data Analysis

The gathered data was analyzed making use of the PQ Method Software Version 2.20 specifically, the Principal Component Analysis (QPCA) and the Varimax rotation of factors (QVARIMAX) (Schmolck 2011). Based on the procedure, distinct factors that would identify how shadow education affected the academic life of the participants were identified. The distinct factors are composed of statements with factor scores of +4, +3, −2, and −3 and those statements are categorized as distinguishing. A statement is said to be distinguishing if it is statistically significant (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01).

Results

Profile of the Respondents

Based on Table 2., majority of the respondents that participated in the initial interview phase of the research are males (n = 10; 58.82 %) while their female counterpart numbered 7 or 41.18 %. For the Q-sorting phase of the present investigation, male participants continued to dominate the respondents (n = 18; 60 %) compared to females (n = 12; 40 %).

Table 2 Demographic data of the participants
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Q-analysis

Review and analysis of the responses during the initial interview resulted to 48 statements that were categorized (based on common theme) into three categories: (1) social; (2) academics; and (3) self. The social category has 10 statements; all of which pertains to how shadow education has influenced the ability of the students to interact and socialize. 20 items comprised the academic category where the statements centered on the influence of shadow education on all aspects of the students’ scholastic performance and other related areas. Finally, the self-category was made-up of 16 items where the focus of the statements is on the effect of shadow education on the general personality of the students. The corresponding scores based on the sorting that was done was analyzed via the PQ-method software 2.20 resulting to three distinct areas or factors where the respondents felt shadow education had more effect with respect to their experiences. Table 3 shows the composite factor score for each the three identified factors with distinguishing statements defined.

Table 3 Composite factor scores
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During the analysis, each participant was identified to a specific factor using the loading score of 0.30 and above. Out of 30 respondents, 14 were loaded to Factor 1 (academic achievement); 7 for Factor 2 (self-improvement); 7 for Factor 3 (learning attitude) while 2 respondents were not significantly associated with any of the 3 Factors. Relationship between the factors were also determined, and based on the result, a moderate relationship was observed between Factors 1 and 2 (r = 0.60); between Factors 1 and 3 (r = 0.57) and between Factors 2 and 3 (r = 0.41). Aside from identifying the Factors and determining where the respondents loaded, the distinguishing statements were also looked into. Analysis of the distinguishing statements together with the data gathered from the interview led to the development of the description of each factor with academic accomplishment, academic transformation and self-improvement as its major themes. The description depicts the perception of the high school students as to how exposure to shadow education activities impacted their academic life.

  1. 1.

    Academic Achievement – Participants in this cluster noted a considerable improvement in terms of their attitude towards their studies. According to them, private tutoring have shaped their interest [41] and made them more confident in dealing with other people [22]. Likewise, they are now able to manage their time well and became more responsible with their lessons and studies [35] all of which are brought about by their training on becoming more focused and concentrating well on the tasks that they are supposed to do [5]. This has become evident in their increased academic performance [14] that likewise made them popular. But at the same time, they also felt that they have lost touch with their friends [24] because of the time they are spending with their studies.

  2. 2.

    Self-improvement – For these participants, methods of learning have considerably changed. After private tutoring, their study habits have improved [36] and can now learn or memorize things easily [9]. Likewise, they now appear to be more motivated in their studies [34] because they now have a firm grasp of the subject matter or the things being discussed [42], the result of which is a big boost to their self-esteem [13] as they feel more intelligent than before [29]. This has led to the need to do well [45]. On the other hand, there are instances that they were bored in their classes because they have already discussed most of the lessons during private tutoring [47] and since the focus is more on studies, less time has been spent on other things, including family and friends [47]. But the many positive effects have countered this wherein they have stated that they have been trained socially [6] in support of their opportunity to interact with others [12].

  3. 3.

    Learning Attitude – Those belonging to the group started out with negative feelings towards private tutoring. They felt that it was a form of punishment from higher authorities, particularly their parents, for not doing well in their studies [32]. Likewise, they viewed their experience in a negative way because private tutoring has taken up much of their time [15] for other activities and those spent with friends [23] as such, the would be effect of private tutoring was not immediately felt [27]. However, as the session progressed, these individuals began to have a change in attitude. They have become more interested in their studies [37] and have noticed an increase in confidence [17] as they are now able to do well in their studies. They can now actively participate in discussions [33] and answer questions and problems [18] which is something that they were not able to do before.

Discussion

The above Factors that were extracted from the by-person factor analysis depict how exposure to shadow education activities has impacted the academic life of high school students. Results show that exposure to shadow education has influenced their academic performance, attitude towards learning and attitude towards self. The effect of shadow education on academic performance is in line with one of its objectives and that is to aid in enhancing the performance of students. The result of the present investigation is also similar to those researches who have documented an increase in the performance of students after undergoing private tutoring (Dang 2007; Banerjee et al. 2007; Schacter 2000; Bray 1999). The result can now be used as a justification for the encouragement and promotion of shadow education activities as a form of supplementary education where the assistance rendered by tutors has armed the students with the necessary skill and knowledge that has caused a marked improvement in their performance.

The present investigation also showed that shadow education affected the learning attitude of the participants. Analysis of the different items under this factor would reveal that the change in attitude was from negative to positive. According to the respondents, negative feelings and attitude about school used to prevail as a result of their difficulty coping with the academic demand that resulted in getting involved in shadow education activities. But during the course of their tutoring, their experiences slowly created a changed in attitude. Studying was no longer a burden but became an opportunity or source to do better and gain more knowledge. Self-improvement was also one of the results of the study. Respondents reported that feelings of inferiority and inadequacy related to studies were transformed into feelings of efficacy, confidence, and high self-esteem as private tutoring empowered the students to learn and approach their learning activities in a more positive way.

This is important as understanding how shadow education affected the students based on their own perspective would aid in the better understanding of the growing phenomenon of shadow education because from an educational psychology point-of-view, any form of assistance rendered to student learners would have an effect not only on their output but on their personality as well.

Consistent with literatures that have been reviewed, the Factors labeled by the researchers as academic achievement, learning attitude and self-improvement are the common effects of exposure to shadow education activities. Abundant researchers have been published highlighting that aids given to students in the form of tutoring increase their chances of doing well in school as reflected in their improved academic or scholastic performance (Dang 2007; Schacter 2000; Bray 1999). This is also one of the expected outcomes in response to one of the objectives of shadow education.

Effects of shadow education are not limited to actual scholastic performance thus the Factors on learning attitude and self-improvement emerged. Learning attitude pertains to changes in attitude and belief towards studies and schooling. According to the respondents, negative feelings and attitude about school used to prevail as a result of their difficulty coping with the academic demand that resulted to them getting involved in shadow education activities. But during the course of their tutoring, their experiences slowly created a change in attitude, studying was no longer a burden but became an opportunity or source to do better and gain more knowledge. Self-improvement was also reported by the respondents where feelings of inferiority and inadequacy related to studies were transformed into feelings of efficacy, confidence and high self-esteem as private tutoring empowered the students to learn and approach their learning activities in a more positive way. The two factors are supported by Bae et al. (2010) that highlighted that social and emotional development is another benefit of out of school programs and that their experiences with their tutors, who are considered their mentors have caused changes in the areas of self-management, self-esteem, and social skills and not solely exposure to the curricula (Karcher 2005).

Conclusion

The purpose of the study was to determine the psychological effects of exposure to shadow education activities among high school students using the Q-methodology approach. For purposes of clarity and understanding, the psychological effects measured were limited to those variables that are related to student learning and well-being. Results have shown that exposure to shadow education as influenced the academic performance, learning attitude and attitude towards self of the participants which clearly shows that shadow education may have affected other factors of the students’ life than what is commonly reported in literature.

In addition, the identified factors would prove to be valuable to educators, educational psychologists, school psychologists, counselors and other professionals working with students particularly those who are doing shadow education already as factors that might affect their learning have been identified.