Abstract
Solder joints and coatings found in bronze artifacts recovered from the Nubian Desert in Egypt show evidence of the decomposition of the lead-tin eutectic structure and solid-state growth of the ε and η intermetallic phases at the solder-bronze interface at ambient temperature. Accelerated aging experiments reproduced the structures observed in the artifacts. The data show that the growth of the intermetallic compounds is diffusion-controlled at low as well as high temperature with an activation energy of 20 kcal/mol.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
N.S. Meeks, “Tin-rich Surfaces on Bronze—Some Experimental and Archaeological Considerations,” Archaeometry, 28 (1986), pp. 133–162.
A. Giumlia-Mair, “Coloring Treatment of Ancient Copper Alloys,” La Revue de Métallurgie (September 2001), pp. 767–776.
J.P. Northover et al., “Fine Metalwork from the Roman Cemetery at Stanstead Airport, Essex, Tinning and High Tin Alloys,” Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology II, ed. P. Vandiver et al. (Pittsburgh, PA: Materials Research Society, 1991), pp. 719–724.
J. Riederer, “Die Metallanalyse von Funden aus Silber und Kupferlegierungen,” Die Alamannenbeute aus dem Rhein bei Neupotz: Plünderungsgut aus dem römischen. Gallien, Monographien Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum (Mainz: Forschungsinstitut für Vor-und Frühgeschichte, 34 Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, 1993), pp. 407–446.
S. Rovira, “Tinned Surfaces in Spanish Late Bronze Age Swords,” Surface Engineering, 21 (2005), pp. 368–372.
B. Trigger, The Late Nubian Settlement of Arminna West, Publication of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition to Egypt No. 2 (New Haven and Philadelphia: Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University and the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, 1967).
K. Weeks, The Classic Christian Townsite at Arminnat, Publication of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition to Egypt No. 3 (New Haven and Philadelphia: Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University and the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, 1967).
B. Abdu and R. Gordon, “Iron Artifacts from the Land of Kush,” Jour. Archaeol. Sci., 31 (2004), pp. 979–998.
W.B. Emery, Egypt in Nubia (London: Hutchinson, 1965), pp. 111–114.
D.A. Welsby, The Kingdom of Kush (New Jersey: Marcus Wiener Publishers, 1996).
C. Panseri and M. Leoni, “The Manufacturing Techniques of Etruscan Mirrors,” Studies in Conservation, The Journal of the International Institute for the Conservation of Museum Objects, 3 (1957), pp. 49–62.
M. Taub et al., “Investigation of the Altered Layer on Ancient Chinese Bronze Mirrors and Model High-Tin Bronzes,” Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology, 5 (1997), pp. 19–24.
M. Goodway, “Etruscan Mirrors: A Reinterpretation,” MASCA Research Papers in Science and Technology, 6 (1989), pp. 25–30.
H.H. Manko, Solders and Soldering (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964).
S. Weise et al., “Constitutive Behavior of Lead-Free Solders vs. Lead-Containing Solders,” Proceedings of the Electronic Components and Technology Conference (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 2001), pp. 890–902.
F.G. Yost et al., The Mechanics of Solder Alloy Wetting and Spreading (New York: Van Nostrand, 1993).
O.J. Kay and C.A. Mackay, “The Growth of Intermetallic Compounds on Common Basis Materials Coated with Tin and Tin-Lead Alloys,” Transactions of the Institute of Metal Finishing, 54 (1976), pp. 68–71.
K.N. Tu and R.D. Thompson, “Kinetic of Interfacial Reaction I Bimetallic Cu-Sn Thin Films,” Acta Metallurgica, 30 (1982), pp. 947–952.
K.N. Tu et al., “Wetting Reaction versus Solid State Aging of Eutectic SnPb on Cu,” Journal of Applied Physics, 89 (2000), p. 4843.
T.Y. Lee et al., “Morphology, Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Solid-state Aging of Eutectic Sn-Pb and Pb-free Solders,” Journal of Materials Research, 17–2 (2002), pp. 291–301.
J.O. Suh, K.N. Tu, and A.M. Gusak, “Morphology, Growth and Size Distribution of Cu6Sn5 Intermetallic Compound by Flux-driven Ripening at SnPb Solder and Copper Interface,” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Advanced Packaging Materials (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 2005), pp. 27–32.
J.O.G. Parent et al., Effects of Intermetallic Formation at the Interface between Copper and Leadtin Solders,” Journal of Materials Science, 23 (1988), pp. 2564–2572.
E.A. Brandon, editor, Smithells Metals Reference Book (London: Butterworths, 1983).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Galli, H., Knopf, R. & Gordon, R. The aging of solder joints over 1,600 years: Evidence from Nubian bronze artifacts. JOM 59, 35–40 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-007-0138-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-007-0138-9