RETRACTED ARTICLE: Techno-economic analysis of biogas production from domestic organic wastes and locally sourced material: the moderating role of social media based-awareness

Abstract

Management of organic waste addresses the issue of cleanliness and sanitation in developing nations such as Pakistan, where improper waste management usually leads to significant health problems and early mortality. The control of organic waste in rural regions of Pakistan and other developing nations needs to be undertaken using effective solutions. This study contributes to satisfying local needs such as cooking, lighting, and maintaining a comfortable temperature in anaerobic locations and works as a guideline for converting to biogas. This research aims to ascertain households’ most substantial challenges concerning biogas production using domestic organic waste and locally sourced materials. The analysis is conducted on data from 81 respondents gathered using a comprehensive questionnaire assessment. Respondents were carefully chosen with the purposive sampling process. Primary data were collected from a structured questionnaire and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate the formulated assumptions. The results indicate that managing organic waste positively influences the sustainable improvement of biogas using human organic waste and locally resourced materials. The selected variables and their moderating effect significantly and favorably influence this conceptual model. Furthermore, all manipulating influences are constructively connected with implementing biogas technology using organic waste and locally resourced material, minimizing household energy expenses, and satisfying local needs. This study concludes that the government’s green energy policy and economic incentives encourage households to use biogas energy produced from organic waste and locally resourced material. The government should use modern technology, resident training, and expert methodological assistance to induce households into biogas production using domestic organic waste and locally resourced material. Finally, the study’s limitations and suggestions for further research are also addressed.

Introduction

Biogas can be produced from a wide variety of organic wastes. Managing garbage in developing regions is quite tricky. The deterioration of the environment, the rising need for power, and the dearth of continuous energy plants have compelled governments worldwide to switch from conventional to renewable energy sources (Yasmin et al. 2022). Renewable energy options mitigate environmental issues and provide lasting solutions to such energy issues (Ahmar et al. 2022). The growth in material consumption has repercussions on ecological quality in the form of environment variation, exhaustion of expected possessions, increased air and water contamination, and decline in bio-assortment. The world’s population is growing, and quality of life is improving, increasing energy consumption. An imbalance between energy demand and supply hinders economic development, prosperity, and sustainable growth and seriously affects a country’s water resources, environment, human health, and agricultural output (Jha and Schmidt 2021). In the southern part of the globe, 250 million people still rely on traditional energy sources for heating, cooling, lighting, and other daily requirements (Silva et al. 2022a). Pakistan, among the developing nations, requires enormous energy to support its population and industries. For several years, the country has faced an unregulated electrical deficit between demand and supply (Fang et al. 2022). Although the imperative is to lower the resident’s power shortfall, Pakistan has not yet produced electrical energy from biogas through organic waste. Previous biogas programs advocated biogas as a substitute for conservative wood power for residential baking and cooking. This research collects data on the mammal inhabitants, chicken waste, domestic waste, and sugar cane bagasse (Hussain et al. 2019).

Biogas could eliminate the energy imbalance and offer additional energy in the coming years. Biogas offers numerous benefits in areas such as energy, gas, biofertilizer production, socioeconomic development, and environmental preservation (Situmorang et al. 2020). Pakistan has the most severe power shortage, with 16 to 18 hours of daylight in rural areas and 10 to 12 hours of day in large metropolises. This energy gap is evident during the summer. Pakistan is the sixth-most populous country in the world, with 215 million residents and an annual populace expansion rate of 2.5% (Ilyas et al. 2021). In Pakistan, approximately 51 billion people do not have energy, and approximately half of the inhabitants have sanitary cooking areas (IRENA 2020). In May 2021, Pakistan’s linked energy production lengths were 34,501 Megawatt (MW). By 2030, it is planned to increase to 53,315 MW. It is irrelevant that renewable energy contributes just 0.5% of energy needs (NEPRA 2021). Fortunately, Pakistan’s terrestrial region offers significant potential (nearly 81 million tonnes per year) for renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and bioenergy (Amir et al. 2019). In May 2021, Pakistan’s national energy combination for the monetary year 2019–20 was 121,691 Gigawatt hours (GWh), with thermal vegetation accountable for 57% of energy generation, hydroelectric vegetation for 32%, and nuclear plants for 8% (NEPRA 2021).

The nation possesses a vast potential for biomass generation to produce bioenergy by utilizing combustion, trans-esterification, gasification, and pyrolysis. Modern technology can significantly affect the nation’s sustainable economic development (Bates et al. 2019). Pakistan’s monthly energy potential must be between 45 MW and 83 MW per 100 m² (Nicholas and Buckley 2018). Most (96%) rural Pakistani households rely on traditional biofuels for energy and cooking using animal manure and woody versus non-woody reserves such as timber, harvest shells, grasses, and foliage (Amir et al. 2019). Employing a substantial amount of wood fuel influences ecological hazards, for instance, brush deterioration, desertification, flooding, land deterioration, and dryness. Moreover, smoke in poorly ventilated buildings substantially negatively impacts human health (Jabeen et al. 2020). Biogas technology can produce 9.8 billion cubic meters of gas annually, and roughly $17.5 billion is paid annually from animal dung and other organic waste. In addition, bagasse, a byproduct of sugarcane and sorghum processing, may produce 5800 GWh of energy annually, or 6.6% of Pakistan’s current electrical output (de Almeida and Colombo 2021). Rural agrarians may benefit from these biogas power resources because biogas is environmentally friendly and may generate electricity, gas, and bio-nutrients. Pakistan can create more than 21 tonnes of bio-nutrients a year if natural gas and power production rise (Yaqoo et al. 2021). However, biogas equipment’s societal and ecological payback in Pakistan is not frequently embraced (Yasmin et al. 2022). Consequently, it is crucial to comprehend the various factors that encourage the use of biogas technology, particularly in a developing nation such as Pakistan (Ahmar et al. 2022). Egocentric and philanthropic components influence households’ acceptance of biogas machinery; the effects and ecological costs must also be measured in adding to equipment expenses. Conversely, the rational biogas hypothesis contains both egoistic and generous objectives. In the former inquiry, the personality of self-sacrifice (pro-conservational) on biogas appreciation was absent or focused on only temporarily (Trypolska et al. 2021).

Because the research was lacking, we examined a supplementary variable as an administrator to increase pro-ecological conduct. Applying social media-based alertness as a moderating variable, we investigate the prognostic influence of the connection between a person’s estimates and more suitable activities. Experiment research indicates that social media-grounded knowledge is becoming progressively advanced for eco-sensible conduct (Simeone and Scarpato 2020). Cyber space, as a social meeting place, and mobile phone technology have established fundamental and favorable international communication instruments. Previous investigations have explored the implication of social media for a variation of communal subjects, for instance, a more maintainable technique of spending, a wish to reprocess, a promise for ecological accountability, and a decrease in poor dietary habits (Amit Kumar 2021). In Pakistan, there are roughly 72 million internet users. Mass media and social media can help raise awareness about biogas plants, the organic waste collection process, use of modern technology, local public training, government green energy policy and economic incentives, and the financial benefits of biogas production through household organic waste and locally sourced materials (Segreto et al. 2020).

At this point, the author will assess Pakistan’s power situation and the possibilities of biogas technology. After analyzing the scenario, previous research-based hypotheses were applied. Individual quality of life, employment opportunities, and efficient progress depend on energy availability and obtainability (Wu 2019).

A trustworthy power supply is crucial for living (Popp et al. 2021). Deprived of a stable worldwide energy stream, the current way of life and economic expansion cannot be maintained (Hoang et al. 2021; Lowe and Drummond 2022). The country’s efficient development and achievement depend on adequate energy funds (Yaqoo et al. 2021). While necessities are comparable in most circumstances, living conditions differ based on complex social, economic, political, and behavioral interactions. These environmental aspects must be considered while designing construction materials, layouts, services, and infrastructures (Kumar and Samadder 2022). In times of emergency and the absence of contemporary and advanced infrastructure, garbage collection and correct disposal are among the most vital but sometimes neglected issues. The focus is removing unprocessed garbage from residential areas to avoid health and safety issues. After that, an integrated, intelligent, and planned waste management strategy is required (Li et al. 2021). Literature and contemporary practice indicate elements of consideration, recommendations, and dangers while addressing this topic (Núñez et al. 2022). Organic waste (OW) treatment is essential due to its environmental, social, and safety implications (Jeon et al. 2022). To supply its power needs, Pakistan imports fossil fuels at over $1.4 billion, which hinders the inhabitant’s economic progress due to the fuel price of $530 per million (Yaqoo et al. 2021). Biogas production has numerous environmental benefits, including generating power and renewable energy, waste treatment, and bio-slurry as organic fertilizer to restore harvest flexibility. Women in rural areas are answerable for cooking and heating systems by fire and firewood (Liu et al. 2021). In recent decades, sanitation has been used to refer to environmental circumstances that affect the health of a population (Bako et al. 2021).

If individuals use insufficient latrines, such as mine latrines or simple commodes that assemble waste in a pit, or if they expel the waste, bacterial pollution from human waste leaks into groundwater, boreholes, tributaries, and the ocean, initiating conservational hazards (Scott et al. 2021). In such situations, the population continues employing conventional defecation habits wherever possible. Otherwise, individuals adapt coping methods, resulting in insufficient and hazardous activities for themselves and the environment (Li et al. 2021). Biogas digesters could effectively address sanitation issues without constraining or compelling lifestyle changes while preventing the black market in fossil fuels. Anaerobic digestion is the biological process of converting organic matter into methane-rich biogas (Situmeang and Mazancov 2022). Anaerobic digestion is a well-established method for treating the organic part of various types of garbage (Golovko et al. 2022; Herrera et al. 2022). Biogas technology is one of the most energy-efficient and ecologically benign bioenergy production methods (Rahman et al. 2021). Furthermore, anaerobic treatment reduces the survivability of pathogens in OW, which is essential for safely using digested waste as fertilizer (Gustafsson and Anderberg 2022). In developing regions, bio-digesters are not unique solutions and positively affect measures of bare subsistence and rural economic growth (Williams et al. 2022). Government institutions are currently participating in subsidy programs, planning, designing, building, operating, and maintaining such systems (Situmeang and Mazancov 2022). Several Asian and African nations, including China, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Vietnam, Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania, have launched significant biogas technology promotion initiatives (Sawyerr et al. 2019).

In developing nations, there are a few primary varieties of residential bio-digesters: the lump stream digester, sausage-bag or tube-shaped/malleable digester, the fixed-dome digester or Chinese digester, and the detached barrel digester, also known as the magnifying digester or the Hindu digester. Although the mechanism and strategy of the gas collection are dissimilar, the digestive process remains the same (Haghanimanesh et al. 2022; Situmeang and Mazancov 2022). Lacking a stable resource of power on a universal scale, the current way of life and economic growth is impossible (Lowe and Drummond 2022). The composition of biogas changes based on feedstock (anaerobic digestion with methanogen or anaerobic organisms, municipal waste, and green waste or food waste) and digester operating parameters (toxic substances, carbon and nutrients availability, organic loading rate (OLR), and product concentrations) (Woon et al. 2021). Pakistan can manufacture biogas from its significant livestock population, organic waste, and other available materials (Awan et al. 2022). Importing petroleum and natural gas strains the economies of developing nations significantly. Adopting biogas is ecologically viable (Sun et al. 2021b). In rural Pakistan, mammal dung may generate an average of 12–804 m³ of biogas daily (Sun et al. 2021a). Pakistan has initiated its domestic biogas project to offer biogas plants for OW and locally resourced material and to exchange conventional gasses, for example, harvest remains, liquid firewood gas, firewood, and organic waste with biogas (Johansson 2021). The project provided subsidies to promote using OW and locally sourced materials and facilitate rural inhabitants’ communal and procedural adaptation. Conversely, acceptance of biogas machinery has not, to date, been extended a sufficient equal (Lei et al. 2021; Gelani et al. 2022). Biogas derived from organic waste and other local resources is Pakistan’s fifth most crucial energy source, supplying about 14% of total energy and power (Yasmin et al. 2022). Biogas produced from organic waste and local resources is an excellent alternative to firewood, biomass, bulk waste, and organic waste. It is frequently utilized for energy and cooking in rural areas. Biomass resources are crucial in developing nations such as Pakistan because of their numerous benefits, including affordable cost energy construction, low principal outlay, and, most significantly, their abundant and widely available raw resources (Ilyas et al. 2021). In addition, bagasse, chicken manure, meat industry waste, residential organic waste, locally sourced materials, and street litter can generate biogas power nationwide. It is expected that 14.25 106 m³ of biogas energy will be developed to meet the everyday power demands of Pakistan’s 112 million rural residents (Bates et al. 2019).

The current research model investigates the effect of technological awareness via social media on the country’s desire to approve biogas equipment. We have examined the organic waste collection procedure, the employment of contemporary technology, local public training, government green energy policy, and economic incentives to eliminate the biogas technology industry’s most pressing problems for homes. In the present investigation, respondents were nominated utilizing a purposeful selection method. Surveys continued to obtain the necessary data to achieve the research objectives, using measurable statistics collection methods. PLS-SEM was employed to assess the constituent numbers. The results reveal that the Pakistani government has launched a green energy strategy and economic incentives to encourage households to install biogas (organic waste) infrastructure significantly and positively. The report advises expanding biogas (organic waste) expertise; the administration should establish an organic waste collection method, use current technology, social media-based awareness, local public training, and green energy policy and economic incentives. The regulatory body prioritizes the application of biogas technology and encourages expenditure. The current study examined the practical difficulties and significant environmental impacts a nation can avoid by investing in biogas technology.

Prior studies on Pakistan’s energy area (Shahzad et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2022) focused on the supply and demand-based energy gap: the causes of energy production, the following energy section, an evaluation of the energy industry, and the energy mix. There is a need to identify the following: (i) the nonexistence of practical and communal information on biogas (organic waste) discourages stakeholders and speculation on biogas knowledge, and (ii) an economic preparation for recognizing the financial paybacks of biogas through organic waste. The present study will investigate the subsequent research inquiries to adjacent prevailing study openings: (i) We scrutinize the critical rudiments of biogas-associated knowledge through organic waste for the long-term development of biogas infrastructure in Pakistan; (ii) We highlight the essentials for administrations to be conscious of the responsibility of launching, funding, and upholding biogas through organic waste to attract stakeholders for the long-term development of biogas energy; (iii) We empirically evaluate the effectiveness of biogas-connected technology through organic waste and the findings of this research will assist non-administrative organizations, capable establishments, and administration establishments in streamlining the inefficient process. Biogas, through organic waste, aims to offer rural households alternative energy for ecological defense and minimize their greenhouse gas production. Therefore, the fundamental objective of this study is to explore and describe the elementary factors that hinder agrarians from spending on biogas produced from organic waste. By exposing Pakistan’s biogas perspective, this research intends to urge stakeholders to fund biogas development to ensure the biogas initiative’s continued success. In addition, this study explores the country’s substantial biogas through organic waste features to encourage the sustainable development of biogas machinery.

The remaining structure of this study is as follows: Section "Research methods" provides research methods. Section "Formulation of Hypotheses" addresses the formulation of hypotheses. Section "Analytical framework and results" develops the analytical framework and results. Section "Discussion and Recommendations" reports discussion and recommendations. Section "Future Work" specifies future work. Finally, Section "Conclusions" provides conclusions and recommendations.

Research methods

Theoretical background

The sociotechnical theory (STT) is predicated on the notion that the design and performance of any organizational system can only be comprehended and enhanced if “social” and “technical” aspects are brought together and regarded as interdependent components of a complex system (Jasanoff 2016). When a business desires to establish a relationship between technology’s comprehensive, interconnected contributions and the human systems that operate and interact with it, it is referred to as a “holistic approach.” The theory can be applied to renewable energy projects (Cooper 2017). It is simpler for businesses to expand and adapt to change when they prioritize controlling the sociotechnical system over managing their operations separately. Sociotechnical systems are a powerful tool for integrating people and technology, reducing risks, and enhancing the usability of current technologies (Hess and Sovacool 2020). By doing so, sociotechnical systems theory businesses can recognize the interconnected, holistic contribution of technology and the human systems that operate and interact with it. Together, humans and technology form a system that adds complexity and is greater than the sum of its parts. Sociotechnical theory focuses on resolving some of conventional organization structures’ most significant issues. In response to increasingly complex business environments, numerous organizations have become so complicated that this added complexity has impeded productivity and efficacy (Cherp et al. 2018).

Businesses quickly realized that the social aspect of sociotechnical systems contributes significantly to their success in adopting renewable energy projects. By designing and administering energy organization with adaptable, socially savvy principles, a business prepares to work more effectively during times of uncertainty and change (Porac et al. 2004). Sociotechnical systems emphasize adaptability. Sociotechnical theory favors renewable energy organizational structures that are highly adaptable to change and flexible even when managing uncertainty. Combining functional technical and social techniques, sociotechnical systems may be the most advantageous for renewable energy initiatives. It recognizes the complexity created by human interaction with technology, reducing the risk of energy projects missing complexity or overlooking a system layer. For renewable energy project adoption, businesses can apply social technical theory for the system’s capability to manage human relationships, permit organizations to respond more effectively, and present public relations difficulties. Companies can create affordable costs by adopting low-cost renewable energy projects with the help of sociotechnical theory. Furthermore, the sociotechnical approach can be applied in every organization; individuals with capabilities work toward goals, adhere to processes, employ renewable energy technology, operate within a physical infrastructure, and adhere to certain cultural assumptions and norms (Sony and Naik 2020).

Additionally, businesses can apply sociotechnical theory for adopting renewable energy projects to minimize product costs due to low-cost energy. With the help of this theory, more companies can adopt renewable energy projects for production purposes and achieve inexpensive energy goals. Sociotechnical systems theory is not limited to designing more accommodating products for disabled or segregated social groups. Renewable energy technology necessitates an understanding of the complex factors that influence people to adopt this low-cost energy and how they affect the performance of small businesses. It is a never-ending process that changes and evolves, so companies can improve their performance by adopting it (Carbajo and Cabeza 2022). Therefore, the advantage of applying sociotechnical systems theory to understanding the characteristics of renewable energy projects is that it considers both the social environment of renewable energy and the interaction between businesses. Using a sociotechnical approach, individuals can utilize technology to benefit society and advance organizational objectives. Taking a broader view of reenabling energy projects in small businesses and incorporating an energy component can help us develop more efficient companies and enhance the business experience at a low cost (Malatji et al. 2019).

According to the sociotechnical theory, if businesses can adopt renewable energy projects in production, their economic performance will increase due to low-cost energy supply. Empirical studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of renewable energy projects in increasing small-scale business performance and attracting new businesses to adopt renewable energy projects. According to a survey conducted by Pueyo and Demartino (2018), business performance can be improved through renewable energy projects. According to findings from a study by Abbas et al. (2021), sociotechnical systems enable individuals to utilize technology in ways that benefit society and advance organizational objectives. There is a greater possibility that business will increase their economic performance by adopting renewable energy projects for energy supply for small-scale enterprises.

Formulation of hypotheses

Organic waste collection process (OWCP)

The global demand for energy resources has evolved into a worldwide issue. Due to the price of hydrocarbon resources, energy crises are rapidly escalating and damaging Pakistan’s economy. For example, embracing biogas machinery in developing nations such as Pakistan is challenging. The government has engaged early steps to resolve the energy crisis and expand biogas production. Embracing biogas machinery in rural areas can contribute to the nation’s financial prosperity. The biogas plants provide electricity, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, stimulate economic expansion by improving earnings, and their upgrading can enhance environmental performance (Iqbal et al. 2018). The acquired data indicate the prospective challenges of high-solid treatment (HST) of food waste and the management options available to address process imbalance and restore process function (Westerholm et al. 2020). Anaerobic digestion (AD) of organic waste has garnered global attention for its ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, decrease fossil fuel burning, and facilitate a sustainable renewable energy supply. Biogas is mainly composed of methane (CH₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), hydrogen sulfones (H₂S), hydrogen (H₂), and ammonia (NH₃), with traces of oxygen (O₂) and nitrogen (N₂) also present. Methane can replace fossil fuels in numerous applications, including generating heat and electricity and in the transportation industry. The breakdown of organic waste by an AD process has numerous benefits, including reducing pathogens and controlling aroma release (Atelge et al. 2018). Attributable to its rural atmosphere, Pakistan keeps considerable organic-related biogas resources. In rural areas, the fruitful placement of these biogas resources might spur optimistic consequences.

With compost and stubble, biogas can decrease discharges and upsurge monetary paybacks (Nevzorova and Kutcherov 2019). Recycling garbage has recently become an important topic and has been examined in this study. Adopting biogas technology is challenging in developing nation-states, such as Pakistan. Modern technology can play an essential role in sustainable economic growth in the country (Breitenmoser et al. 2019). Biogas conveniences entail competent mechanics nationwide. The government has ample biogas resources, including rural wastes, firewood timber, community waste, and organic waste; 48% of the nation’s energy demands are fulfilled by burning wood and 32% by organic waste and harvests—Pakistan has a prospective energy productivity of 4800 to 5600 MW from organic waste. Correspondingly, the biological and thermochemical potential for producing power from community waste are 220 kWh/t and 560 kWh/t (Afridi and Qammar 2020). Biogas is the favored solution since food waste is viewed as an environmental and economic issue and a waste problem. There is no conflict between food waste donation and anaerobic digestion. While edible food waste can be donated, inedible food waste can be recycled (Johansson 2021). Based on these discoveries, we presented the subsequent first supposition:

Hypothesis 1 (H1)

There is a progressive relationship between the OWCP and the financial benefits of biogas production through household organic waste and locally sourced materials (FBBP-HOWLSM).

Use of modern technology (UOMT) and FBBP-HOWLSM

Utilizing biogas technology, organic waste is converted into electricity. Using energy and manure can result in socioeconomic gains and a greener environment and contribute to sustainable development. There are currently a variety of treatment procedures for the management of organic waste, with some being more technologically advanced than others and others being more established in countries where legislation and policy encourage specific environmental aims. Four waste management technologies are currently used: landfilling, aerobic composting, incineration, and anaerobic digestion (AD). Anaerobic digestion of organic waste is the most desirable option for waste management. Solid organic wastes (SOWs) are a plentiful resource that can be converted into biofuels. Because of the construction of methane-rich biogas and the reprocessing of nutrients, anaerobic digestion (AD) is among the most promising conversion methods for managing SOWs. The current status of AD of SOWs to energy is summarized, and numerous future development opportunities for biogas production enhancement methodologies are underlined (Zhang et al. 2018). The production of biogas from organic leftovers and wastes and its use as a renewable energy source for electricity generation could contribute to an energy supply that is more environmentally friendly. The methodological approach includes a bottom-up, resource-focused technique with spatial and statistical analysis for specific organic waste sources. The methodological strategy leads to plausible results. Biogas produced from organic waste has significant potential as a sustainable energy source for electricity generation in Mexico (Rios and Kaltschmitt 2016). The most recent developments and trends in biogas production technology include probable feedstock. Recently, garbage recycling has become a significant problem that has been investigated. The anaerobic digestion of organic solid waste is a sustainable development method that permits the proper disposal of solid waste and the energy exploitation of biogas (Atelge et al. 2018).

China has a long history of employing biogas technology for waste treatment and energy generation. Depending on the type of waste treated, biogas plants utilize a variety of processes. Biogas from municipal waste is treated using the wholly stirred tank reactor (CSTR). Following the CSTR and the anaerobic contact (AC) process, the up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) is the most prevalent technology for the anaerobic treatment of industrial wastewater. Newer biogas plants use advanced anaerobic methods such as CSTR and UASB, up-flow solids reactors (USR), and up-flow blanket filter (UBF) reactors to treat agricultural waste. Based on the scale of biogas production and digester volume, biogas plants for agrarian waste are classified as small, medium, large, or super-large (Deng et al. 2017). These outcomes are consistent with the enhancement of biogas generation in Pakistan by utilizing locally sourced materials and domestic organic waste. An implementation framework must be developed to aid practitioners and decision-makers in establishing a sustainable biogas facility for municipal organic waste. Biogas technology is one of the most effective methods for treating organic waste since it recovers organic waste material and energy (Pandyaswargo et al. 2019). The second hypothesis we proposed considering these observations is as follows:

Hypothesis 2 (H2)

There is a progressive relationship between UOMT and FBBP-HOWLSM.

Local public training (LPT)

Training is required to realize biogas technology’s economic and social benefits for energy recovery waste treatment as a solution to climate change and food security and promote biogas technology’s relevance, applicability, and adaptability. To raise awareness of the biogas technology’s application and adaptability, local public training must identify the collaborative biogas technology research and development in the area. A farmer’s education level is one of the most critical factors that positively affect the installation of biogas digesters. A farmer’s more extensive farming experience can also significantly promote the building of biogas digesters. Finally, the farther a farm is from a town or urban center, the more likely the farmer will install biogas digesters (Li et al. 2022). Women Environment Protection Committee (WEPCO) demonstrated that converting garbage to biogas is an innovative method for decreasing waste and producing energy. This community-based activity has offered both environmental and socioeconomic benefits: awareness-raising and training, particularly for youth, and income production, thereby enhancing the standard of living of community members (UNCC 2009). Food waste (FW) is a global issue affecting most nations.

Once FW is combined with other wastes, it becomes contaminated and may not be valued into commodities with added value. However, public engagement and training can be tedious and time-consuming to maintain adequate segregation. A simple waste segregation procedure that requires minimal behavioral change is necessary to persuade the public to perform FW segregation at the source. The most ecologically friendly method of converting FW to energy is anaerobic digestion, which affects ecosystem features and human health daily. Converting 80% of daily FW into electricity reduces total carbon emissions by 0.4% and contributes 1.1% to total power use (Woon et al. 2021). Small-scale rural biogas digesters can produce environmental, health, and social advantages with a net positive effect on energy access in rural areas. Small inputs of the methane produced by anaerobic digestion led to a remarkable rise in living conditions; nonetheless, obstacles connected with a lack of technical skills, knowledge, and education continue to impede biogas’ full potential in rural regions, particularly in developing nations (Pilloni and Hamed 2021). The benefits of residential biogas digesters are now more apparent. However, its application has not yet been widespread in the developing world. The obstacles to the sustainable development of household biogas include a lack of raw materials, inefficient straw fermentation technology, and inadequate aftercare services. The straw will replace animal manure as the primary raw material for biogas; managers and farmers require training in biogas digester operation and management, and establishing rural biogas service stations is necessary to provide follow-up services (Chen et al. 2017). These justifications lead us to the following formulation of the third hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3 (H3)

There is a progressive relationship between LPT and FBBP-HOWLSM.

Government green energy policy and economic incentives (GGEPEI)

The biogas industry in Pakistan has a massive unrealized potential, which is essentially accomplished by publicizing pertinent evidence to indigenous agronomists. With the assistance of international investors, the biogas sector’s challenges can be remedied if the Pakistani government modifies its policies and offers economic incentives to biogas plant customers. The adopted biogas plant’s technical and operational design should be considered for similar projects. Biogas significantly influences two policy domains: renewable energy and bio-economy (Ali et al. 2022c). This study aims to determine how biogas can contribute to both policy domains by examining the relationship between present biogas practices. The widespread integration of biogas between sectors is advantageous in reducing greenhouse gases. However, there is a negative coherence between greenhouse gas reduction and economic profitability at various levels of sector integration. A slight increase in financial incentives is required to make bio-methane profitable for transportation. Environmental impacts and economic profit are the four configurations of the biogas value chain that generate the most beneficial and economically advantageous scenario (Lyng et al. 2018). Transporting input materials results in diseconomies of scale. The new regulation supports upgraded biogas fed into the natural gas grid, facilitating economies of scale. However, to keep transport costs low, biogas plants must allow the use and combination of as many co-substrates as possible while adhering to the sustainability criteria of energy crops legislation (Skovsgaard and Jacobsen 2017).

Biogas has developed as a viable renewable method for converting agricultural, animal, industrial, and municipal waste into energy. Integrating biogas production with measures to enhance sanitation and reduce indoor air pollution and greenhouse gases is possible. Due to the difference in technology maturity, feedstock availability and quality, supply chain, awareness level, and policy support, it was determined that rural and urban biogas systems face different types of hurdles (Ali et al. 2022b; Mittal et al. 2018). The European Union’s (EU) biogas production has expanded due to renewable energy policies and economic, environmental, and climate benefits to 18 billion m³ of methane, which represents half of the global biogas production. The European Union is the world leader in biogas electricity production, with more than 10 GW installed and 17,400 biogas plants, compared to the global biogas capacity of 15 GW. The EU is also the largest producer of bio-methane for use as a vehicle fuel or injection into the natural gas grid, with 459 plants producing 1.2 billion m³ and 340 plants feeding into the gas grid with a capacity of 1.5 million m³. In 2015, about 697 bio-methane filling stations facilitated using 160 million m³ of bio-methane as a transportation fuel (Scarlat et al. 2018). We presented the fourth hypothesis considering these findings as follows:

Hypothesis 4 (H4):

There is a progressive relationship between GGEPEI and FBBP-OWLSM.

The moderating role of social media-based awareness (SMBA) between OWCP and FBBP-HOWLSM

Biogas production is a promising renewable energy technology with the potential to generate economic, environmental, and social value that is sustainable over time. The network concept helps develop sustainable business models (BM). Collaborative business modeling for creating network-level BMs that solve environmental and social problems for and with stakeholders can be a successful method for increasing long-term financial profit and fostering the growth of a company, a network, or an industry (Karlsson et al. 2019). The estimate is based on knowledge and facts about biogas and revolves around a thorough geographical impression. These constraints have an adjacent affiliation with the fitting and construction of biogas. Convinced governments subsidized the creation of biogas technology, while developing countries’ opinion of them and their amenities were favorable. Differentiating between accountability, client efficacy, ecological concern, and consequence awareness has a substantial and enduring effect on the criteria utilized by agronomists.

Thus, human factors impact the propensity of Pakistani producers to utilize biogas technology (Wang et al. 2020). A social media discussion forum is used in a specific context. A Facebook group was created to discuss Finland’s national energy policy reform. The discussion networks (about biogas) may be conducive to broad participation and the assimilation of new ideas and may also comprise subgroups that promote learning. Despite the group’s original intent to stimulate forward-looking debates on energy policy, the conversations are firmly centered around a small number of active participants and focused on the current situation, drawing on specific local and national experiences and technical details (Rantala et al. 2020). Biogas machinery may progress biogas productivity in developing countries, for instance, Pakistan, as has been persuasively evidenced. Fifty percent of industrious biogas classifications miscarry after 2 years of constricting due to technical and rational difficulties. Outstanding the poor quality of digester feedstuff and a lack of understanding of the facilities, it was unworkable to continue biogas production. In the episode of a shortage of foremost feedstock, limited expert learning involving alternatives is lacking to maintain biogas invention (Tumusiime et al. 2019). Novel empirical findings suggest a relationship between social networks and the uptake of renewable energy technology. Two principal transmission mechanisms may facilitate the manipulation of social networks on the acceptance of renewable energy machinery: knowledge dissemination and social impact. Both methods are active, using mainly acquired data on biogas use in rural China. In addition, information spreads through trusted network members, such as friends and family, whereas government officials exert the majority of social influence (He et al. 2022). Considering these influences, we suggested the subsequent hypotheses as follows:

Hypothesis 5 (H5)

SMBA positively moderates the association between OWCP and FBBP-HOWLSM.

Hypothesis 6 (H6):

SMBA positively moderates the association between UOMT and FBBP-HOWLSM.

Hypothesis 7 (H7):

SMBA positively moderates the association between LPT and FBBP-HOWLSM.

Hypothesis 8 (H8):

SMBA positively moderates the association between GGEPI and FBBP-HOWLSM.

Hypothesis 9 (H9):

There is an association between SMBA and FBBP-HOWLSM.

Methodology

This study utilized non-probability (purposive) sampling to determine the financial benefits of biogas generation in Pakistan using human organic waste and locally available components. In this study, the sampling technique did not offer an approximate prospect for all inhabitants participants. The goal-directed random sample approach is employed for precise inhabitants’ topographies and experimental, qualitative, and empirical studies. When the entire population is available for analysis, systematic sampling is essential for generalizing theories (Hull et al. 2019). Non-probability sampling techniques include quota sampling, snowball sampling, purposive sampling, voluntary response sampling, and convenience sampling. We have selected human organic waste and locally sourced materials as a part of this study on biogas production’s financial benefits. Based on a scholarly foundation, this research was conducted in Pakistan to determine the factors that influence the application of biogas energy technology using OW and locally resourced material. The alleged environmental, sociological, and technical aspects are accountable for the disaster, yet biogas energy technology’s success with residents or humanity cannot be ruled out. Figure 1 depicts a conceptual paradigm that allows residents’ perceptions to impact the selection of an existing energy base. The conceptual framework illustrates the predicted relationship between independent variables (IV) and dependent variables (DV). The current framework reveals the expected moderation between the IV and DV in accumulation. This study surveys the influence of biogas production from human organic waste and locally resourced materials on the inhabitants’ financial benefits and the moderating influence of social media-grounded understanding between the IV and DV in Pakistan.

Fig. 1

Conceptual model

Sample and procedure

We reached 119 relevant responders (operating biogas plant managers, local plant investors, stakeholders of biogas plants, and residents of organic waste providers in the research area). Respondents were chosen using a method known as purposive random sampling. The existing study employed the typical 5-group scale, where one (1) represents always, and five (5) represents never. As a general guideline, a sample size of one to five (1–5) is recommended (Hair Jr et al. 2021). The authors surveyed from June to August 2022 to complete the research. Obtaining information from related respondents was challenging due to different areas and situations. Fifty present (50%) of surveys were distributed via live sessions. Therefore, we used 50% of cell phone presentations (e.g., WhatsApp and LinkedIn) to send the opinion poll. Ninety-eight (98) of these respondents agreed to participate in the evaluation. After acquiring consent from respondents, the investigators supplied 50% of closed-ended and open-ended questions via WhatsApp and LinkedIn to each respondent. There was a total of 87 questionnaires returned for the questionnaire survey. The response percentage was 88.78%, but six surveys were discarded due to matchless and insufficient answers. The sample produced 81 legitimate respondents for the analysis of the study. Respondents afforded their evidence in reaction to the occurrence of researchers and friends in the study area. A precise explanation of the sample maintains the finding. Respondents were chosen based on the following criteria: operating biogas plant managers, local plant investors, biogas plant stakeholders, and organic waste providers for residents in the research area. Additionally, respondents were required to have a minimum of one to three years of proficiency in the alternative power sector. Respondents do not have the lowest requirement. The demographic characteristics of respondents are listed in Appendix, Table 6. In addition, purposive sampling was used to pick respondents to access the entire population and fit theoretical generalization (Lemaire 2018). This study was conducted in three major cities (Faisalabad, Lahore, and Gujranwala) and the rural areas around them in Pakistan, including respondents with various cultures and behaviors. According to the recruitment criteria, the demographic features of the respondents, for example, age, capability, learning, and masculinity, also reveal the diverse backgrounds of those who provided the correct response in this study. The first section of the questionnaire concerns the respondent’s personal information, while the second section focuses on the characteristics of biogas production from OW and local resources.

This study intends to explore the advantages of installing biogas technology for OW and locally sourced material management and the economic benefits of biogas generation. The moderating impact of social media-grounded understanding of biogas technology is a component of the consummation interconnection. Current research explores the financial benefits of biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials. This investigation’s additional principal aim is to investigate the moderating effect of social media-based awareness, the links of the organic waste collection process, the use of modern technology, local public training, and government green energy policy and economic incentives. The research developed measurable data-gathering techniques and collected the data employing surveys. The current research has taken four predictors, such as organic waste collection process (OWCP) with five items, use of modern technology (UOMT) with five items, local public training (LPT) with four items, and government green energy policy and economic incentives (GGEPEI) with three things. In addition, the financial benefits of biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials (FBOBP-HOWLSM) are a dependent variable with four items. Social media-based awareness (SMBA) has taken four items as moderators.

Measurement variables

In the present investigation, corresponding items specified in prior literature were utilized. The organic waste collection process (OWCP) concept was evaluated using five variables. These items were chosen and revised in light of the research (Franchitti et al. 2020). Five factors were used to measure modern technology (UOMT), modified from previous research (Jabeen et al. 2020). Five elements were utilized to evaluate practical local public training (LPT), which were changed and adapted from an earlier study (Ioannou-ttofa et al. 2021). Government green energy policy and economic incentives (GGEPEI) have three items altered and modified from previous studies (Yang et al. 2021). Social media-based awareness (SMBA) was evaluated as a moderating variable using five modified and extracted research questions (Ali et al. 2022c). The financial benefits of biogas production from human organic waste and locally sourced materials (FBBP-HOWLSM) were determined by four parameters. These items were adopted and revised based on the findings of the previous survey (Regattieri et al. 2018). Each topic was graded on a five-point Likert scale, with one representing strongly disagree and five representing strongly agree.

Analytical framework and results

Our research employed structural equation modeling (SEM) for data analysis (Ali et al. 2022a). This method was used to assess relationship dimensions since it is a component-centered approach (Saleem et al. 2021; Schuberth et al. 2022). PLS-SEM has a high frequency of use and application, which is why the researcher chose it for this study; the evidence was provided by subsequent research (Chin et al. 2020; Rönkkö and Cho 2022). SEM is better than other standard statistical analysis methods. It facilitates statistical analysis regarding effectiveness, simplicity, and accuracy (Henseler et al. 2015; Hair Jr et al. 2016). Despite being a second-generation technique, SEM overcomes the problems of first-generation analysis. Because SEM is a multivariate analysis tool, it can facilitate the simultaneous exploration of multiple variables. SEM continues to gain application in business research due to its ability to simultaneously manage complex and varied interactions.

Administration and social science research must employ a reliable statistical methodology (Ramayah et al. 2010). Utilizing analytical processes inappropriately may result in erroneous conclusions. Two phases of measurement data are represented by two-stage PLS-SEM analytic methods, measurements, and structural models (Peterson 2021). This study’s measurement assessment model for a subset of biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials included consistency and rationality tests or inner prototype estimation. Tests of assumptions and interactions, or the calculation of the prototype surface, served as the foundation for a model of structural assessment for selected solar projects. This study utilized PLS 3.0 software for the primary statistical analysis and investigated the associations between the adaptable under discussion. In addition, partial least square path modeling provides stronger arithmetic influence than covariance-based structural equation modeling. PLS-SEM is superior for detecting variable connections. In addition, smart-PLS for variance-based structural equation modeling applies partial least squares route modeling to examine the interdependence of variables (Abdul et al. 2022). Smart-PLS attempts to test theories in the study, so thorough model research has evolved. The smart PLS comprises two methodologies for this research study: measurement and a structural model. The Cronbach alpha item correlation, the composite reliability, and the item loading define the validity. However, discriminant fact pertains to the relationship between variables assessed with Fornell–Larcker, cross-loading, and Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio. In addition, the measurement model incorporates the examination of hypotheses via route analysis and the research analysis described in the section on outcomes.

Path analysis has highlighted the linkages between the components under investigation in this study. Thus, Hypotheses 1, 2, 3, and 5 were confirmed. In addition, the results suggested that the relationship between the use of modern technology and local public training was considerably affected by social media-based awareness, and hypotheses H7, H8, and H9 were also accepted. The findings section of the measurement model first established the convergent validity of the study elements’ connection. Loadings and extracted average variance (AVE) values are statistically significant above 0.50, but alpha and CR values are statistically substantial above 0.70. These data imply convergent validity is the association between solid and reliable items. In addition to evaluating the link between objects, also known as convergent validity, the research results assess the association between entities. The graphs revealed that factor loadings are more significant than 0.50, alpha values are greater than 0.70, AVE values are more powerful than 0.50, and CR values are more critical than 0.70. These figures indicate a high degree of item correlation and convergent validity.

Measurement assessment model

Reliability analysis

It was necessary to examine the measuring model used in this investigation to carry out validity and reliability assessments for every construct provided. In addition to establishing the dependability and factor loadings of the constructs, the measuring model verifies their reliability and validity (Collier 2020). The approach to assessing measurement reliability and validity (convergent and discriminant validity) is consistent (Hair et al. 2011). This study evaluated convergent validity with the average variance extracted (AVE), internal consistency reliability with composite reliability (CR), and item reliability with outer loading. The results are summarized in Table 1; whole item loadings exceed the criteria value of 0.5 (Collier 2020). Each factor loading average was more than 0.50, and each reflection was subsidized to the produced variable. AVE surpasses the suggested threshold of 0.5 (Arbuckle 2011). Each standard’s overall reliability is more than 0.70, indicating precise measurements (Anderson and Gerbing 1988). The results of the biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials suggest that all the values of AVE are between 0.623 (use of modern technology) and 0.991 (social media-based awareness). CR values are between 0.884 (organic waste collection process) and 0.998 (social media-based understanding). The values of all additional loadings are between 0.5 and 0.997. Table 2 shows discriminant validity through Fornell–Larcker, and Table 3 provides cross-loading values. All validated fact and reliability values for this measurement model are shown in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. All factor loading values are more than 0.50; hence, the convergent validity of all items in the measurement assessment model is valid.

Table 1 Convergent validity analysis

Table 2 Discriminant validity through Fornell–Larcker

Table 3 Cross-loading

Table 4 Discriminant validity through Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio (HTMT)

Measurement model validation

The Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) is more suited than Fornell–Larcker’s criteria (Akbar et al. 2019) as several experts have criticized Fornell–Larcker’s criteria. It is confirmed if the discriminant validity value is less than 0.85 (Cohen 1988) or 0.90 (Ali et al. 2022a). In Table 4, completely standard values are less than 0.90. The sector findings have also revealed the discriminant validity of the factor’s relationships. Cross-loadings and Fornell–Larcker are initially applied to ascertain discriminant validity. The figures show that the relationship values for the variable are more significant than those for other variables. These values revealed that discriminant validity is a valid but weak relationship between variables. Second, discriminant validity has been analyzed with cutting-edge techniques such as the HTMT ratio. The data indicates that the HTMT ratio is less than 0.85. These findings suggest a weak relationship between factors and discriminant validity (see Table 4 and Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

Measurement assessment model

Structural assessment model

The measurement model is the first stage of the smart PLS, and the structural assessment model is the second. In this phase, the relationship between exogenous and endogenous variables was investigated. Numerous forms of statistical outcomes, such as effect size (f²), t values, predictive relevance (Q²), coefficient of determination (R²), and path coefficient, are provided by the structural assessment model (values). Literature on PLS-SEM offers criteria for evaluating hypotheses and establishing the significance of path coefficients. To assess the significance of hypotheses, 5000 subsamples were subjected to a bootstrapping procedure with a significance level of 5% (one-tailed) (Hair et al. 2011). The results indicate that H4 and H6 are unacceptable. Analysis of organic waste collection process (β = 0.152, t = 1.992 > 1.64, p < 0.05), OWCP connection (moderator), (β = 0.289, t = 4.347 > 1.64, p < 0.05), use of modern technology (β = 0.089, t = 2.145 > 1.64, p < 0.05), UOMT relationship (moderator) (β = 0.048, t = 1.148 > 1.64, p < 0.05), local public training (β = 0.223, t = 2.733 > 1.64, p < 0.05), LPT relationship (moderator) (β = 0.078, t = 1.166 < 1.64, p > 0.05), government green energy policy and economic incentives (β = 0.206, t = 3.267 > 1.64, p < 0.05), GGEPEI relationship (moderator) (β = 0.121, t = 2.127 > 1.64, p < 0.05), and social media based-awareness, (β = 0.136, t = 2.118 > 1.64, p < 0.05), have a positive and significant effect on financial benefits of biogas production through human organic waste and local sourced materials.

The R² value for OWCP → FBBP-HOWLSM is 0.453, indicating that the model can significantly increase the financial benefits of biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials. In contrast, the R² value is insufficient to qualify as a suitable and successful model assistance technique (Hair et al. 2014). Consequently, the analytical significance dimension Q² of the prototype is an appropriate method. Q² is more significant than zero, as demonstrated by the inactive exogenous values with disproportionate predictive relevance (Akbar et al. 2019). Q² precedes a value of 0.251, suggesting that the model is highly predictive of the financial benefits of biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials. Typical values for f² are 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, suggesting modest, moderate, and most significant effects, respectively (Cohen 1988). Therefore, the value of f² assumed that the effect size varied between moderate and large (see Table 5). Numerous statistical procedures are enumerated in Table 5. The structural assessment model is depicted in Fig. 3. There is a substantial link between the variables in the model since the t-values are more than 1.64, and the effect of UOMT and LPT have not positively moderating on the financial benefits of biogas production through human organic waste and local sourced materials. The values of moderated variables in the structural assessment model for biogas production through human organic waste and local sourced materials in Pakistan are favorable signs and have a significant association.

Table 5 Results using a structural model with hypotheses testing

Fig. 3

Structural model assessment

Discussion and recommendations

This study has both theoretical and practical implications. The present work contributes to biotechnology and socioeconomics literature. The current research examines the effect of four influences, including the OWCP, UOMT, LPT, and GGEPEI, as well as the moderator SMBA, on the adoption of biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials by Pakistani households and rural residents for the long-term development of biogas technology. This study advised government sector executives and policymakers to encourage families and rural inhabitants to manufacture biogas from human organic waste and locally produced materials to advance biogas technology. This study highlights the vital need for government energy-related organizations, economists, and energy sector authorities to assist households and rural residents to manage OW and locally produced material to manufacture biogas from OW and give technical training. Superior planning to control OW and using locally produced materials for biogas generation can cut lighting, heating, and cooking costs for households in the three large cities and rural areas chosen for this study. Biogas generation from OW and locally obtained materials can minimize energy, financial, and poverty challenges by improving the economic conditions of communities.

However, government assistance may enhance biogas production through OW and locally sourced material in rural regions for households and new residents in the selected research area. The findings imply that biogas generation from OW, locally obtained materials, and legislative constraints must be addressed to attract households and rural residents. Social media-based awareness, government green energy policy, and economic incentives significantly influence biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials to attract new households and rural residents to reduce domestic expenses. With biogas production through OW, active government green energy policy and economic incentives can change the lives of families and rural residents by improving their financial situation. Similar results are supported by prior research (Ahmar et al. 2022; Ali et al. 2023a). This research also demonstrates that social media-based awareness is an ideal moderator of the link between the organic waste collection process and biogas production through OW and locally sourced material in rural regions. According to the research, biogas production through OW in the rural areas of Pakistan is affected by social media-based awareness. The given results correlate to the findings of this study (Ali et al. 2022c). A prior study reveals that social media knowledge of biogas plants affects installation parameters and the uptake of biogas technology. This research also shows that social media-based awareness of biogas production through OW and locally sourced material has a critical relationship between the use of modern technology and the desire to manage OW. Li et al. (2022) also show that social media awareness of biogas production through OW and locally sourced material influences government economic policies, encourages households and rural residents to use domestic biogas plants, and saves household expenses. These findings guide policymakers, competent authorities, institutional bodies, and regulators to focus on biogas production through OW and locally sourced material (Silva et al. 2022a). The Ministry of Water & Power and the Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) must adopt these factors to achieve high household and rural residents’ satisfaction, thereby attracting rural residents for biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials. The relevant institutional authorities must investigate the OWCP, UOMT, LPT, and GGEPEI to save households lighting, heating, and cooking expenses and improve the living conditions of rural residents with biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials.

The research findings will also demonstrate to the government the urgency to provide awareness about adopting domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced material and new members of its future development inventiveness. The R² value for OWCP in Table 6 is 0.453, showing that the current conceptual model has an excellent explanatory ability to encourage households and rural Pakistan residents to utilize OW and locally sourced materials for home biogas production. Q² accepts a score of 0.251, indicating that the theoretical outline has a solid and optimistic analytical value and recommending that the emphasized constraints be resolved to increase the likelihood of biogas production through OW and locally sourced material in Pakistani households and rural areas. Figure 1 of the model depicts the significant relationship between the selected variables and the GGEPEI; the t measurement standards are outcome-oriented and more excellent than 1.64, indicating that the GGEPEI has a positive and statistically significant impact on encouraging households and rural residents of Pakistan to produce biogas from OW and locally sourced material. In the structural evaluation model, the significance of the moderated variable (social media-based awareness) indicates a substantial association.

Based on respondents’ remarks, this study also examines the financial benefits of biogas production using OW and locally obtained resources. In addition, the findings of this study indicate that the availability of specialists and local public training for evaluating the adoption of residential biogas plants to control OW have a significant and positive link with the development of viable biogas technology. Current research confirms the findings of a previous study emphasizing the significance of producing household biogas from OW and locally obtained materials on the intention of rural residents to employ biogas technology (Silva et al. 2022b). In addition, the research findings reveal that government green energy policies and economic incentives significantly impact rural inhabitants’ adoption and motivation to manufacture biogas from OW and local materials. This study demonstrates that a government strategy that encourages the development of biogas from OW and other locally available materials has substantial financial benefits. These results validate the findings of a previous investigation (Ali et al. 2023b). This study suggests that managerial assistance for OW and using locally produced materials for biogas production might improve the possibility that new rural residents will adopt this technology and raise the demand for household biogas plants. The householder and rural residents’ expenditures will decrease considerably after establishing domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials. Household expense reduction is the most critical adaptive element for biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials in selected big cities and rural areas. This adaptability implies that domestic biogas production through OW may enhance the financial status of households and rural residents (Tian et al. 2021). After constructing domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials, the environment can be saved in several ways, as well as saving households’ energy expenditures on lighting, heating, and cooking. Environmental safety from biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials includes reducing smoke from the air, a significant reduction in fire incidents, and it also provides health safety with cleaner kitchens. However, the key benefits of biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials are cleanliness and wellness and saving household expenditures by providing low-cost energy for lighting, heating, and cooking.

Our research findings give rural Pakistanis and government staff vital information to produce biogas through OW and locally sourced materials. The study demonstrates that biogas production using OW and other available materials is well suited for rural residents of Punjab, Pakistan, reducing household energy expenses and boosting economic growth and prosperity. Government organizations should revise green energy policy for biogas production through OW and locally sourced material to aid households and rural individuals for economic development. Adopting domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced material positively and strongly correlates with the organic waste collection process, government green energy policy, and economic incentives in Pakistan. The households and rural residents producing biogas through OW and local materials must train for domestic biogas production plant and maintenance guidelines to reduce production costs. In addition, the study reveals that qualified households and rural residents enjoy more financial benefits than incompetent and untrained households. In addition, the research indicated that biogas production through OW and locally sourced material is more advantageous when households and rural residents are trained to operate domestic biogas plants and the necessary technology is readily available.

Moreover, we recommend that Pakistan’s government support biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials for economic incentives to households and rural residents. Assume that one household member is trained for biogas production through OW and locally sourced material and capable of managing OW to produce biogas maintenance of domestic biogas plant complications. In such a case, most energy-related issues (lighting, heating, and cooking) can be resolved, and the household’s and rural residents’ per-day energy expenses may be reduced. Instead of only three major cities (Faisalabad, Lahore, and Gujranwala) and the rural areas around them, the report recommended expanding domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced materials to other regions of Punjab with government green energy policy and economic incentives participation.

Future work

Moreover, the current research indicated that the selected criteria and their moderation in this conceptual model significantly and favorably affected the structural evaluation model for developing biogas production using OW and local resources in rural Pakistan. However, home and rural resident biogas plant proprietors refrained from utilizing the post-purchase services provided by construction and installation firms and organizations. The subsequent suggestions are put forth to the Pakistani government regarding the advancement and encouragement of biogas generation in rural areas of the country through the utilization of locally sourced materials and OW. To encourage domestic biogas production from OW and local sources, the government should develop a green energy policy and economic incentives for the organic waste collection process, training sessions, technical and awareness assistance, and social media outreach regarding OW management training at domestic biogas plants. In Pakistan, the manufacture of biogas from OW and other locally produced materials can alleviate the energy needs of households and rural residents. To ensure the sustained growth, maintenance, and social media-based awareness of biogas production through OW and locally generated materials in rural Pakistan, the government of Pakistan should implement specific training initiatives. Therefore, government institutions in Pakistan should build technical centers staffed by trained personnel and provide after-sales services for the development of biogas production using OW and locally obtained materials. Therefore, interested academics must determine the remaining elements of biogas generation through the adoption of OW and locally acquired resources while examining the results of this study. The researchers decided to construct biogas production in Pakistan’s rural areas using OW and local materials. Pakistan is a developing nation. Consequently, the findings of this study do not apply equally to industrialized and developing countries. In the future, the authors must study the incentives for homes and rural inhabitants in industrialized nations to employ biogas produced from organic waste and locally sourced materials.

Conclusions

Biogas production through OW and locally sourced material is generally considered a practical energy source for households and rural residents. The most significant barrier to producing biogas through OW and locally sourced material in Pakistan and additional low-income nations is domestic biogas plant awareness and acceptance due to untrained households and rural residents. Although Pakistan’s government and many prominent competent authorities are attempting to make biogas production through OW and locally sourced material acceptable by sponsoring domestic biogas production for households and rural residents, the acceptance rate of domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced material among households and village residents remains dreadfully low. This investigation’s primary determination is to assess the financial benefits of biogas production through human organic waste and locally sourced materials from three major cities (Faisalabad, Lahore, and Gujranwala) and the rural areas around them and realize the importance of biogas technology and to manage the household OW. This study seeks to analyze the key features of domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced material in Pakistan and encourage domestic biogas production’s long-term growth. This report highlights Pakistan’s OW and locally sourced material potential to produce biogas production and attract households and rural residents to adopt domestic biogas production plants to reduce energy expenses (lighting, heating, and cooking) and support the expansion of domestic biogas production. The energy choice theory indicates that the households and rural residents of this research region (Faisalabad, Lahore, and Gujranwala) and the rural areas around them were more interested in using biogas in traditional farming practices than biogas production using OW and locally sourced materials as modern methods. Contrarily, the most challenging feature of biogas plants was their maintenance obstacles. Installation and building of domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced material are generally driven by structure-based economic incentives, financial subsidy benefits, domestic biogas producers and rural residents, and energy protection. Although there are some common issues mentioned for the acceptability of biogas production using OW and locally sourced material, managing OW and locally sourced materials, awareness for domestic biogas plant technology, complicated domestic OW biogas plant operations, untrained members of households and rural residents, inadequate gas for lighting, heating, and cooking, technical difficulties for domestic biogas production using OW, and shortage of availability of domestic biogas plant technical experts are the most collective explanations. In conclusion, the current research reveals that all independent variables (OWCP, UOMT, LPT, and GGEPEI) are essential and favorably associated with household and rural residents in Pakistan’s adoption of domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced material, improving the energy crisis (lighting, heating, and cooking), and achieving financial benefits and saving on household energy expenses. According to the current study’s findings, eradicating specific hindrances for adopting domestic biogas production through OW and locally sourced material in Pakistan’s households and rural resident areas is desirable. These complications include financial resource management, saving household energy expenses, appropriate training on biogas production using OW, and energy policy and economic incentives.