Abstract
Flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) contribute to the acceleration and propagation of solar energetic particles (SEP) detected in the interplanetary space, but the exact roles of these phenomena are yet to be understood. We examine two types of energetic particle tracers related with 15 CME-less flares that emit bright soft X-ray bursts (GOES X class): radio emission of flare-accelerated electrons and in situ measurements of energetic electrons and protons near 1 AU. The CME-less flares are found to be vigorous accelerators of microwave-emitting electrons, which remain confined in low coronal structures. This is shown by unusually steep low-frequency microwave spectra and by lack of radio emission from the middle and high corona, including dm – m wave type IV continua and metre-to-hectometre type III bursts. The confinement of the particles accelerated in CME-less flares agrees with the magnetic field configuration of these events inferred by others. Two events produced isolated metric type II bursts revealing coronal shock waves. None of the seven flares in the western hemisphere was followed by enhanced particle fluxes in the GOES detectors, but one, which was accompanied by a type II burst, caused a weak SEP event detected at SoHO and ACE. Three of the CME-less flares were followed within some hours by SEP-associated flares from the same active region. These SEP-producing events were clearly distinct from the CME-less ones by their association with fast and broad CMEs, dm – m wave radio emission, and intense DH type III bursts. We conclude that radio emission at decimetre and longer waves is a reliable indication that flare-accelerated particles have access to the high corona and interplanetary space. The absence of such emission can be used as a signal that no SEP event is to be expected despite the occurrence of a strong soft X-ray burst.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Axisa, F.: 1974, On the role of the magnetic configuration of flares for production of type III solar radio bursts. Solar Phys. 35, 207 – 224.
Balch, C.C.: 2008, Updated verification of the Space Weather Prediction Center’s solar energetic particle prediction model. Space Weather 6, S01001.
Belov, A., Kurt, V., Mavromichalaki, H., Gerontidou, M.: 2007, Peak-size distributions of proton fluxes and associated soft X-ray flares. Solar Phys. 246, 457 – 470.
Benz, A.O., Güdel, M.: 1994, The soft X-ray/microwave ratio of solar and stellar flares and coronae. Astron. Astrophys. 285, 621 – 630.
Bewsher, D., Harrison, R.A., Brown, D.S.: 2008, The relationship between EUV dimming and coronal mass ejections. I. Statistical study and probability model. Astron. Astrophys. 478, 897 – 906.
Bougeret, J.L., Kaiser, M.L., Kellogg, P.J., Manning, R., Goetz, K., Monson, S.J., Monge, N., Friel, L., Meetre, C.A., Perche, C., Sitruk, L., Hoang, S.: 1995, Waves: The radio and plasma wave investigation on the Wind spacecraft. Space Sci. Rev. 71, 231 – 263.
Cane, H.V., Erickson, W.C., Prestage, N.P.: 2002, Solar flares, type III radio bursts, coronal mass ejections and energetic particles. J. Geophys. Res. 107, 1315.
Caroubalos, C., Maroulis, D., Patavalis, N., Bougeret, J., Dumas, G., Perche, C., Alissandrakis, C., Hillaris, A., Moussas, X., Preka-Papadema, P., Kontogeorgos, A., Tsitsipis, P., Kanelakis, G.: 2001, The new multichannel radiospectrograph ARTEMIS-IV/HECATE, of the University of Athens. Exp. Astron. 11, 23 – 32.
Chertok, I.M.: 1990, On the correlation between the solar gamma-ray line emission, radio bursts and proton fluxes in the interplanetary space. Astron. Nachr. 311, 379 – 381.
Claßen, H.T., Mann, G., Klassen, A., Aurass, H.: 2003, Relative timing of electron acceleration and injection at solar flares: A case study. Astron. Astrophys. 409, 309 – 316.
Cliver, E.W., Dennis, B.R., Kiplinger, A.L., Kane, S.R., Neidig, D.F., Sheeley, N.R., Koomen, M.J.: 1986, Solar gradual hard X-ray bursts and associated phenomena. Astrophys. J. 305, 920 – 935.
Correia, E., Kaufmann, P., Magun, A.: 1994, The observed spectrum of solar burst continuum emission in the submillimeter spectral range. In: IAU Symp. 154: Infrared Solar Physics, 125 – 129.
Dauphin, C., Vilmer, N., Krucker, S.: 2006, Observations of a soft X-ray rising loop associated with a type II burst and a coronal mass ejection in the 03 November 2003 X-ray flare. Astron. Astrophys. 455, 339 – 348.
Démoulin, P., Klein, K.L., Goff, C.P., van Driel-Gesztelyi, L., Culhane, J.L., Mandrini, C.H., Matthews, S.A., Harra, L.K.: 2007, Decametric N burst: A consequence of the interaction of two coronal mass ejections. Solar Phys. 240, 301 – 313.
Dulk, G.A.: 1985, Radio emission from the sun and stars. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 23, 169 – 224.
Fürst, E.: 1971, A statistical research on solar microwave bursts. Solar Phys. 18, 84 – 86.
Garcia, H.A.: 2004, Forecasting methods for occurrence and magnitude of proton storms with solar soft X-rays. Space Weather 2, S02002.
Gergely, T.E., Kundu, M.R., Hildner, E.: 1983, A coronal transient associated with a high-speed type II burst. Astrophys. J. 268, 403 – 411.
Gergely, T.E., Kundu, M.R., Erskine, F.T. III, Sawyer, C., Wagner, W.J., Illing, R., House, L.L., McCabe, M.K., Stewart, R.T., Nelson, G.J.: 1984, Radio and visible-light observations of a coronal arcade transient. Solar Phys. 90, 161 – 176.
Gold, R.E., Krimigis, S.M., Hawkins, S.E., Haggerty, D.K., Lohr, D.A., Fiore, E., Armstrong, T.P., Holland, G., Lanzerotti, L.J.: 1998, Electron, proton, and alpha monitor on the Advanced Composition Explorer spacecraft. Space Sci. Rev. 86, 541 – 562.
Gopalswamy, N., Kundu, M.R.: 1989, A slowly moving plasmoid associated with a filament eruption. Solar Phys. 122, 91 – 110.
Gopalswamy, N., Akiyama, S., Yashiro, S.: 2009, Major solar flares without coronal mass ejections. In: Gopalswamy, N., Webb, D.F. (eds.) Universal Heliophysical Processes, IAU Symp. 257, 283 – 286.
Gopalswamy, N., Yashiro, S., Krucker, S., Stenborg, G., Howard, R.A.: 2004, Intensity variation of large solar energetic particle events associated with coronal mass ejections. J. Geophys. Res. 109, A12105.
Guidice, D.A., Castelli, J.P.: 1975, Spectral distributions of microwave bursts. Solar Phys. 44, 155 – 172.
Hofmann, A., Ruždjak, V.: 2007, Favourable magnetic field configurations for generation of flare-associated meter-wave type III radio bursts. Solar Phys. 240, 107 – 119.
Hucke, S., Kallenrode, M.B., Wibberenz, G.: 1992, Interplanetary type III radiobursts and relativistic electrons. Solar Phys. 142, 143 – 155.
Jin, M., Ding, M.D., Chen, P.F., Fang, C., Imada, S.: 2009, Coronal mass ejection induced outflows observed with Hinode/EIS. Astrophys. J. 702, 27 – 38.
Kahler, S.W.: 1982, Radio burst characteristics of solar proton flares. Astrophys. J. 261, 710 – 719.
Kahler, S.W.: 2001, The correlation between solar energetic particle peak intensities and speeds of coronal mass ejections: Effects of ambient particle intensities and energy spectra. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 20947 – 20956.
Kahler, S.W.: 2007, Solar sources of heliospheric energetic electron events – shocks or flares? Space Sci. Rev. 129, 359 – 390.
Kahler, S.W., Aurass, H., Mann, G., Klassen, A.: 2007, Solar radio burst and solar wind associations with inferred near-relativistic electron injections. Astrophys. J. 656, 567 – 576.
Kai, K., Melrose, D.B., Suzuki, S.: 1985, Storms. In: McLean, D., Labrum, N. (eds.) Solar Radiophysics: Studies of Emission from the Sun at Metre Wavelengths, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 415 – 441.
Kayser, S.E., Bougeret, J., Fainberg, J., Stone, R.G.: 1987, Comparisons of interplanetary type III storm footpoints with solar features. Solar Phys. 109, 107 – 118.
Kerdraon, A., Delouis, J.: 1997, The Nançay radioheliograph. In: Trottet, G. (ed.) Coronal Physics from Radio and Space Observations, Lecture Notes in Physics 483, Springer, Berlin, 192 – 201.
Klassen, A., Aurass, H., Klein, K.L., Hofmann, A., Mann, G.: 1999, Radio evidence on shock wave formation in the solar corona. Astron. Astrophys. 343, 287 – 296.
Klassen, A., Bothmer, V., Mann, G., Reiner, M.J., Krucker, S., Vourlidas, A., Kunow, H.: 2002, Solar energetic electron events and coronal shocks. Astron. Astrophys. 385, 1078 – 1088.
Klein, K.L., Mouradian, Z.: 2002, The dynamics of an erupting prominence. Astron. Astrophys. 381, 683 – 693.
Klein, K.L., Posner, A.: 2005, The onset of solar energetic particle events: prompt release of deka-MeV protons and associated coronal activity. Astron. Astrophys. 438, 1029 – 1042.
Klein, K.L., Trottet, G., Vilmer, N.: 2009, A search for solar energetic particle events with CME-less flares. In: Proc. 31st ICRC, Paper 0634. http://icrc2009.uni.lodz.pl/proc/pdf/icrc0634.pdf .
Klein, K.L., Khan, J.I., Vilmer, N., Delouis, J., Aurass, H.: 1999, X-ray and radio evidence on the origin of a coronal shock wave. Astron. Astrophys. 346, L53 – L56.
Klein, K.L., Schwartz, R.A., McTiernan, J.M., Trottet, G., Klassen, A., Lecacheux, A.: 2003, An upper limit of the number and energy of electrons accelerated at an extended coronal shock wave. Astron. Astrophys. 409, 317 – 324.
Klein, K.L., Krucker, S., Trottet, G., Hoang, S.: 2005, Coronal phenomena at the onset of solar energetic electron events. Astron. Astrophys. 431, 1047 – 1060.
Koutchmy, S.: 1994, Coronal physics from eclipse observations. Adv. Space Res. 14(4), 29 – 39.
Lecacheux, A.: 2000, The Nançay Decameter Array: A useful step towards giant, new generation radio telescopes for long wavelength radio astronomy. In: Stone, R., Weiler, K., Goldstein, M., Bougeret, J.L. (eds.) Radio Astronomy at Long Wavelengths, AGU Monograph 119, 321 – 328.
MacDowall, R.J., Lara, A., Manoharan, P.K., Nitta, N.V., Rosas, A.M., Bougeret, J.L.: 2003, Long-duration hectometric type III radio bursts and their association with solar energetic particle (SEP) events. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30(12), 120000-1.
Maia, D., Pick, M.: 2004, Revisiting the origin of impulsive electron events: coronal magnetic restructuring. Astrophys. J. 609, 1082 – 1097.
Mann, G., Classen, T., Aurass, H.: 1995, Characteristics of coronal shock waves and solar type II radio bursts. Astron. Astrophys. 295, 775 – 781.
Mann, G., Aurass, H., Voigt, W., Paschke, J.: 1992, Preliminary observations of solar type II bursts with the new radiospectrograph in Tremsdorf (Germany). In: Coronal Streamers, Coronal Loops, and Coronal and Solar Wind Composition SP-348, ESA, Noordwijk, 129 – 132.
Marqué, C., Posner, A., Klein, K.L.: 2006, Solar energetic particles and radio-silent fast coronal mass ejections. Astrophys. J. 642, 1222 – 1235.
Messmer, P., Benz, A.O., Monstein, C.: 1999, PHOENIX-2: A new broadband spectrometer for decimetric and microwave radio bursts first results. Solar Phys. 187, 335 – 345.
Müller-Mellin, R., Kunow, H., Fleissner, V., Pehlke, E., Rode, E., Roschmann, N., Scharmberg, C., Sierks, H., Rusznyak, P., McKenna-Lawlor, S., Elendt, I., Sequeiros, J., Meziat, D., Sanchez, S., Medina, J., del Peral, L., Witte, M., Marsden, R., Henrion, J.: 1995, COSTEP – Comprehensive Suprathermal and Energetic Particle Analyser. Solar Phys. 162, 483 – 504.
Nakajima, H., Sekiguchi, H., Sawa, M., Kai, K., Kawashima, S.: 1985, The radiometer and polarimeters at 80, 35, and 17 GHz for solar observations at Nobeyama. Publ. Astron. Soc. Japan 37, 163 – 170.
Nelson, G.J., Robinson, R.D.: 1975, Multi-frequency heliograph observations of type II bursts. Proc. Astron. Soc. Australia 2, 370 – 373.
Nindos, A., Aurass, H., Klein, K.L., Trottet, G.: 2008, Radio emission of flares and coronal mass ejections. Solar Phys. 253, 3 – 41.
Nita, G.M., Gary, D.E., Lee, J.: 2004, Statistical study of two years of solar flare radio spectra obtained with the Owens Valley Solar Array. Astrophys. J. 605, 528 – 545.
Pacholczyk, A.G.: 1970, Radio Astrophysics, Freeman, San Francisco.
Pick, M.: 1986, Observations of radio continua and terminology. Solar Phys. 104, 19 – 32.
Pick, M., Démoulin, P., Krucker, S., Malandraki, O., Maia, D.: 2005, Radio and X-ray signatures of magnetic reconnection behind an ejected flux rope. Astrophys. J. 625, 1019 – 1026.
Priest, E.R.: 1982, Solar Magneto-hydrodynamics, Reidel, Dordrecht.
Raoult-Barbezat, A., Klein, K.: 2005, A coronal mass ejection on 05 February 2005: Radio, EUV and visible light observations. In: The Dynamic Sun: Challenges for Theory and Observations, ESA SP 600.
Robbrecht, E., Patsourakos, S., Vourlidas, A.: 2009, No trace left behind: STEREO observation of a coronal mass ejection without low coronal signatures. Astrophys. J. 701, 283 – 291.
Spangler, S.R., Shawhan, S.D.: 1974, Short duration solar microwave bursts and associated soft X-ray emission. Solar Phys. 37, 189 – 203.
Stewart, R.T.: 1985, Moving Type IV bursts. In: McLean, D., Labrum, N. (eds.) Solar Radiophysics: Studies of Emission from the Sun at Metre Wavelengths, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 361 – 383.
Vršnak, B., Cliver, E.W.: 2008, Origin of coronal shock waves. Solar Phys. 253, 215 – 235.
Vršnak, B., Aurass, H., Magdalenić, J., Gopalswamy, N.: 2001, Band-splitting of coronal and interplanetary type II bursts. I. Basic properties. Astron. Astrophys. 377, 321 – 329.
Vršnak, B., Klein, K.L., Warmuth, A., Otruba, W., Skender, M.: 2003, Vertical dynamics of the energy release process in a simple two-ribbon flare. Solar Phys. 214, 325 – 338.
Wang, Y., Zhang, J.: 2007, A comparative study between eruptive X-class flares associated with coronal mass ejections and confined X-class flares. Astrophys. J. 665, 1428 – 1438.
White, S.M.: 2007, Solar radio bursts and space weather. Asian J. Phys. 16, 189.
Yashiro, S., Gopalswamy, N., Michalek, G., St. Cyr, O.C., Plunkett, S.P., Rich, N.B., Howard, R.A.: 2004, A catalog of white light coronal mass ejections observed by the SOHO spacecraft. J. Geophys. Res. 109(A18), A07105.
Yashiro, S., Michalek, G., Akiyama, S., Gopalswamy, N., Howard, R.A.: 2008, Spatial relationship between solar flares and coronal mass ejections. Astrophys. J. 673, 1174 – 1180.
Zlobec, P., Messerotti, M., Ruzdjak, V., Vrsnak, B., Karlicky, M.: 1990, The role of the magnetic field intensity and geometry in the type III burst generation. Solar Phys. 130, 31 – 37.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Klein, KL., Trottet, G. & Klassen, A. Energetic Particle Acceleration and Propagation in Strong CME-Less Flares. Sol Phys 263, 185–208 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-010-9540-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-010-9540-5