Abstract
This study was designed to explore Black adolescent girls' gender roles, racial identity, and self-esteem. These variables have not been examined together in a study of Black girls, yet studies of girls from other racial/cultural groups have demonstrated significant relationships. This type of exploration is important because Black girls do not experience the same declines in self-esteem as girls from other racial/cultural groups. Gender role orientation and racial identity have been put forth as possible explanations for Black girls' bolstered levels of self-esteem. Results indicated that Black girls with androgynous and masculine characteristics reported high levels of self-esteem. The results also indicated that Black girls with internally defined Black racial identity attitudes reported high levels of domain-specific self-esteem. In addition, androgyny was associated with high scores on internalization (Black racial identity).
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
American Association of University Women. (1991). Shortchanging girls, shortchanging America: Executive summary a nationwide poll that assesses self-esteem, educational experiences, interest in math and science, and career aspirations of girls and boys ages 9–15. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women.
Basow, S. A. (1999). Gender influences on adolescent development. In N. G. Johnson, M. C. Roberts, & J. Worell (Eds.), Beyond appearance: A new look at adolescent girls (pp. 25–52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.
Bem, S. L. (1977). On the utility of alternative procedures for assessing psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 196–205.
Bem, S. L. (1979). Theory and measurement of androgyny: A reply to the Pedhazur-Tetenbaum and Locksley-Cotton critiques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1047–1054.
Bem, S. L. (1981). Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Professional manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Bem, S. L. (1983). Gender schema theory and its implications for child development: Raising gender-aschematic children in a gender-schematic society. Sign, 8, 598–616.
Bem, S. L. (1984). Androgyny and gender schema theory: A conceptual and empirical integration. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 32, 179–226.
Bem, S. L. (1987). Probing the promise of androgyny. In M. R. Walsh (Ed.), The psychology of women (pp. 206–225). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Bem, S. L. (1993). The lenses of gender: Transforming the debate on sexual inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Blanchard-Fields, F., Suhrer-Roussel, L., & Hertzog, C. (1994). A confirmatory factor analysis of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Old questions, new answers. Sex Roles, 30, 423–457.
Block, J. H. (1973). Conceptions of sex role: Some cross-cultural and longitudinal perspectives. American Psychologist, 28, 512–526.
Brown, L. M., & Gilligan, C. (1992). Meeting at the crossroads: Women's psychology and girls' development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Carter, R. T. (1991). Racial identity attitudes and psychological functioning. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 164–173.
Carter, R. T. (1995). The influence of race and racial identity in psychotherapy: Toward a racial inclusive model. New York, NY: Wiley.
Carter, R. T. (2000). Re-imagining race in education: A new paradigm from psychology. Teachers College Record, 102, 864–897.
Chin, P. E., & McConnel, A. R. (2003). Do racial minorities respond the same way to mainstream beauty standards? Social comparison processes in Asian, Black, and White women. Self and Identity, 2(2), 153–167.
Chodorow, N. (1979). The reproduction of mothering. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Collins, P. H. (1991). Black Feminist Thought. Boston, MA: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Inc.
Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Inc.
Collins, P. H. (2004). Black sexual politics: African American, gender and the new racism. New York, NY: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Inc.
Cross, W. E. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20, 13–27.
Cross, W. E. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Deutsch, H. (1944). The psychology of women. New York, NY: Grune & Stratton.
Dinnerstein, D. (1976). The mermaid and the minotaur. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Doswell, W. M., Millor, G. K., & Thompson, H. (1998). Self image and self-esteem in African-American pre-teen girls: Implications for Mental Health. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 19, 71–94.
Duke, L. (2002). Get real!: Cultural relevance and resistance to the mediated feminine ideal. Psychology and Marketing, 19, 211–233.
Erikson, E. (1950/1963). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
Erkut, S., Fields, J. P., & Sing, R. (1996). Diversity in girls' experiences: Feeling good about who you are. In B. J. Ross Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities (pp. 53–64). New York, NY: New York University Press.
Erkut, S., Marx, F., Fields, J. P., & Sing, R. (1999). Raising confident and competent girls: One size does not fit all. In L. A. Peplau, S. C. DeBro, R. C. Veniegas, & P. L. Taylor (Eds.), Gender, culture and ethnicity (pp. 83–101). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing.
Fordham, S. (1993). “Those loud Black girls”: (Black) women, silence, and gender “passing” in the academy. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 24(1), 3–32.
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. London: Hogarth.
Galambos, N. L., Almeida, D. M., & Petersen, A. C. (1990). Masculinity, femininity, and sex role attitudes in early adolescence: Exploring gender intensification. Child Development, 61, 1905–1914.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Golden, G. C. (1996). Relational theories of White women's development. In J. C. Chrisler, C. Golden, & P. D. Rozee (Eds.), Lecture on the psychology of women (pp. 229–242). New York: McGraw Hill.
Goodman, D. J. (1990). African-American women's voices: Expanding theories of women's development. SAGE, 7(2), 3–14.
Hare-Mustin, R. T., & Marecek, J. (1990). On making a difference. In R. T. Hare-Mustin & J. Marecek (Eds.), Making a difference: Psychology and the construction of gender (pp. 184–201). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Harris, A. C. (1994). Ethnicity as a determinant of sex role identity: A replication study of item selection for the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Sex Roles, 31, 241–273.
Harris, A. C. (1996). African American and Anglo-American gender identities: An empirical study. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 182–194.
Harris, A. C. (1997). Gender as a determinant of household purchase decisions: African Americans versus Anglo Americans. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 21, 134–141.
Heffner, R., Rebecca, M., & Oreshansky, M. (1975). Development of sex-role transcendence. Human Development, 18, 143–158.
Helms, J. E. (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Helms, J. E. (1996). Toward a methodology for measuring and assessing racial as distinguished from ethnic identity. In G. R. Sodowsky & J. C. Impara (Eds.), Multicultural assessment in counseling and clinical psychology. Lincoln: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
Helms, J. E., & Piper, R. E. (1994). Implications of racial identity theory for vocational psychology. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 124–138.
Hill, J., & Lynch, M. (1983). The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In J. Brooks-Gunn & A. Petersen (Eds.), Girls at puberty: Biological and psychosocial perspectives. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Holt, C. L., & Ellis, J. B. (1998). Assessing the current validity of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles, 39, 929–941.
Kilmicka, T., Cross, H., & Tarnai, J. (1983). A comparison of androgynous, feminine, masculine, and undifferentiated women on self-esteem, body satisfaction, and sexual satisfaction. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 7, 291–294.
Kohlberg, L. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children's sex role concepts and attitudes. In E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Konrad, A. M., & Harris, C. (2002). Desirability of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory items for women and men: A comparison between African Americans and European Americans. Sex Roles, 47, 259–271.
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American Apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McCollum, V. J. (1997). Evolution of the African American family personality: Considerations for family therapy. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 25, 219–229.
McCreary, M. L., Slavin, L. A., & Berry, E. J. (1996). Predicting problem behavior and self-esteem among African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 11, 216–234.
Miller, J. B. (1976). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Mokgatlhe, B. P., & Schoeman, J. B. (1998). Predictors of satisfaction with life: The role of racial identity, collective self-esteem and gender-role attitudes. South African Journal of Psychology, 28, 28–35.
Molloy, B. L., & Herzberger, S. D. (1998). Body image and self-esteem: A comparison of African-American and Caucasian women. Sex Roles, 38, 631–643.
Molloy, B. L., & Herzberger, S. D. (2002). Body image and self-esteem: A comparison of African-American and Caucasian women. In A. E. Hunter & C. Forden, Readings in the Psychology of Gender: Exploring out Differences and Commonalities (pp. 111–122). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Munford, M. B. (1994). The relationship of gender, self-esteem, social class, and racial identity to depression in Blacks. Journal of Black Psychology, 20, 157–174.
Nghe, L. T., & Mahalik, J. R. (2001). Examining racial identity statuses as predictors of psychological defenses in African-American college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 10–16.
O'Connor, C. (1997). Dispositions toward (collective) struggle and educational resilience in the inner city: A case analysis of six African-American high school students. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 593–629.
Oliver, M. L., & Shapiro, T. M. (1997). Black wealth/White wealth: A new perspective on racial inequality. New York, NY: Routledge.
Oyserman, D., Harrison, K., & Bybee, D. (2001). Can racial identity be promotive of academic efficacy? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 379–385.
Parham, T. A., & Helms, J. E. (1981). The influence of Black students' racial identity attitudes on preferences for counselor's race. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 250–257.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1964). Profile of the Negro American. Princeton, NJ: Van Norstrand.
Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156–176.
Phinney, J. S., & Kohatsu, E. L. (1997). Ethnic and racial identity development and mental health. In J. Schulenberg & J. L. Maggs (Eds.), Health risks and developmental transitions during adolescence (pp. 420–443). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Piers, E. V. (1984). Piers-Harris children's self-concept scale: Revised manual 1984. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Piers, E. V., & Harris, D. B. (1969). Piers-Harris self-concept scale. Nashville, TN: Counselor Recordings and Tests.
Pipher, M. (1994). Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. New York, NY: Random House Publishing Group.
Ponterotto, J. G., & Wise, S. L. (1987). Construct validity study of the racial identity attitude scale. Jounral of Counseling Psychology, 34(2), 218–223.
Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. A. (1989). The “good manager.” Group and Organization Studies, 14, 216–233.
Puglisi, J. T., & Jackson, D. W. (1980). Sex role identity and self-esteem in adulthood. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 12, 129–138.
Pyant, C. T., & Yanico, B. J. (1991). Relationship of racial identity and gender-role attitudes to Black women's psychological well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 315–322.
Reid, P. (1988). Racism and sexism: Comparisons and conflicts. In P. A. Katz & D. A. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy. New York, NY: Plenum.
Resnicow, K., Soler, R. E., Braithwaite, R. L, Selassie, M. B., & Smith, M. (1999). Development of a racial and ethnic identity scale for African American adolescents: The survey of Black life. Journal of Black Psychology, 25, 171–188.
Robison-Awana, P., Kehle, T. J., Bray, M. A., Jenson, W. R., Clark, E., & Lawless, K. A. (2001). Self-esteem, gender-role perception, gender role orientation and attributional style as a function of academic competence: Smart girls are different, but a boy is a boy is a boy. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 17, 47–64.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ross Leadbeater, B. J., & Way, N. (1996). Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities. New York, NY: New York University Press.
Rowley, S. J., Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T. M., & Smith, M. A. (1998). The relationship between racial identity and self-esteem in African American college and high school students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 715–724.
Ruble, D. M., & Martin, C. L. (1998). Gender development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 933–1016). New York, NY: Wiley.
Salimen, S. (1994). Sex roles and values of school children using self-esteem as a moderating factor. Adolescence, 29, 876–884.
Sarigiani, P. A., Camarena, P. M., & Petersen, A. C. (1993). Cultural factors in adolescent girls' development: The role of ethnic minority group status. In M. Sugar (Ed.), Female Adolescent Development (pp. 138–156). New York, NY: Brunner Mazel.
Sharpe, M. J., & Heppner, P. P. (1991). Gender role, gender role conflict, and psychological well-being in men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 323–330.
Simmons, R. G., & Blyth, D. A. (1987). Moving in to adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and school context. New York, NY: Aldine.
Smith, B. J. (1991). Raising a resister. In C. Gilligan, A. G. Rogers, & D. L. Tolman (Eds.), Women, girls, & psychotherapy: Reframing resistance (pp. 137–148). New York, NY: Haworth.
Smith, H. E. (1999). Psychological detachment from school: its effects on the academic achievement of black adolescent students in inner-city school. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, Vol 60(5-B), December 1999.
Spencer, M. B. (1999). Social and cultural influences on school adjustment: The application of an identity-focused model. Educational Psychologist, 34(1), 43–58.
Spencer, M. B., Cunningham, M., & Swanson, D. P. (1995). Identity as coping: Adolescent African-American males' adaptive responses to high-risk environment. In H. W. Harris, & H. C. Blue, Racial and Ethnic Identity: Psychological Development and Creative Expression (pp. 31–52). Florence, KY, US: Taylor & Frances/Routledge.
Spencer, M. B., & Dornbush, M. (1990). Challenges in studying minority youth. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliot (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Stoller, R. J. (1968). Sex and gender: On the development of masculinity and femininity. New York, NY: Science House.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins.
Tatum, B. D. (1997). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? New York, NY: Basic Books.
Tatum, B. D. (2004). Family life and school experience: Factors in the racial identity development of Black youth in White communities. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 117–135.
Wade, J. C. (1996). African-American men's gender role conflict: The significance of racial identity. Sex Roles, 34, 17–33.
Ward, J. V. (1996). Raising resisters: The role of truth telling in the psychological development of African American girls. In B. J. Ross Leadbeater & N. Way (Eds.), Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities. New York, NY: New York University Press.
Wilson, J. W., & Constantine, M. G. (1999). Racial identity attitudes, self-concept, and perceived family cohesion in Black college students. Journal of Black Studies, 29, 354–366.
Winston, C., Eccles, J. S., & Senior, A. (1997). The utility of expectancy/value and dis-identification models for understanding ethnic group differences in academic performance and self-esteem. Zeitschrift fuer Paedagogische Psychologie, 11, 177–186.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Buckley, T.R., Carter, R.T. Black Adolescent Girls: Do Gender Role and Racial Identity: Impact Their Self-Esteem?. Sex Roles 53, 647–661 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7731-6
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7731-6