Introduction

Teachers are required to participate in various forms of professional development throughout the school year. However, professional development is rarely designed to help teachers improve themselves (Hill 2009). Instead, professional development is often centered around the delivery of instruction, academic content, and educational updates and revisions. Sparks and Hirsch (2000) described effective professional development as rigorous, curriculum-based, and immersing teachers in subject content and teaching methodology. A large majority of teachers however, think professional development has no impact on their instruction and reinforces existing practices (Horizon Research 2000). Knight (2000) suggested teachers often experience stress, anxiety, and resentment when immersed in professional development focused on teaching methods and curriculum-based information. Additionally, Knight (2000) described teachers’ views of professional development as overwhelming and largely unrealistic.

Professional development may be more effective if teachers are provided opportunities to address specific weaknesses (Hill 2009). Sparks (2001) discussed the importance of educating teachers about the ways stress and burnout may impact their personal and professional lives. Despite recent increases in stress and burnout, professional development focused on helping teachers address social-emotional issues has been largely ignored (Hill 2009; McMahon 2008).

Due to recent budget crises many school districts across the nation are facing, four-day school weeks have been implemented, programs are being cut, and positions are being eliminated (Cook 2009). These cutbacks, aimed at balancing the budget, neglect to address added responsibility and burden teachers will acquire as a result. Teachers are experiencing larger class sizes, lack of autonomy, increased workloads, inadequate feedback, decreases in staff support, and increases in disciplinary issues (Grayson and Alvarez 2007; Strayton 2009). These environmental changes may likely lead teachers to additional social-emotional issues, further creating a learning environment that is not conducive to student success.

Given these increased responsibilities and added stressors, there are many reasons for low-cost professional development aimed at addressing the social-emotional health of teachers. Warren (2010a) suggested school counselors can play an integral role in providing effective, low-cost mental health-related professional development. School counselors can create professional development opportunities, including group consultation, in an effort to effect change in teacher practices and the overall school environment, as recommended by Galassi et al. (2008) and the ASCA National Model (American School Counselor Association 2005). School counselors can include group consultation for teachers as a component of their comprehensive school counseling programs. Baker and Gerler (2008) described providing consultation to teachers as a potentially important role of school counselors. Providing social-emotional consultation to teachers enhances comprehensive programming and demonstrates leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and systemic change, as outlined in the ASCA National Model (see ASCA 2005).

Bernard and DiGiuseppe (1994) discussed utilizing Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) during consultation with teachers. Ellis (1962) developed REBT to aid individuals in leading happier and more productive lives. Ellis (1962) posited that individuals are predisposed to irrational thinking. These irrational beliefs often take the form of demands and evaluations. Demands are rigid, dogmatic, absolute beliefs that include: “should,” “must,” and “ought.” Evaluations take the form of statements such as: “I can’t stand it,” or “It’s awful.” Irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy negative emotions (anger, anxiety, depression) and self-defeating behaviors. By identifying and challenging irrational beliefs, individuals may form rational alternative beliefs. Rational beliefs are flexible and preferential in nature. “I would like to have my way, but don’t have to” is an example of a rational thought. Rational beliefs often lead to healthy negative emotions (bother, concern, annoyance) and to behaviors that are more helpful in nature. REBT was found to effectively decrease intense emotions and unhelpful behaviors while fostering responsible enjoyment of life (David et al. 2005).

School counselors can apply a variation of the consultation model set forth by Bernard and DiGiuseppe (1994) to support teachers in the school environment. Group consultation focused on REBT concepts and their application in the classroom and school may reduce teachers’ unhealthy negative emotions and foster helpful behaviors (Warren 2010a, b). As a result, teachers may be better able to manage increased duties, additional day-to-day responsibilities, and classroom behavior. A study conducted by Warren (2010b) suggested REBT interventions decreased irrationality and increased efficacy beliefs among teachers. Warren (2010b) also noted several relationships among aspects of irrational beliefs and efficacy beliefs. For example, a strong negative relationship (r = −.51) was found between the Classroom Management (CM) subscale of the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES; Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy 2001) and scores from the Teachers’ Irrational Belief Scale (TIBS; Bernard 1990). Additionally, a stronger correlation (r = −.58) was found between CM and the Authoritarian Attitudes Towards Students (AATS) subscale of the TIBS.

Through REBT group consultation (REB-GC), school counselors can support teachers and increase their well-being. Teachers can learn strategies and techniques that can be applied, modeled, and taught during classroom instruction. REB-GC has the potential to increase teacher well-being and reduce stress.

Purpose of Study

The central focus of this study was to explore teachers’ reactions to REB-GC provided by a school counselor. Teachers participated in group consultation for 10 h, during six sessions conducted across 7 weeks. The participants engaged in lecture, interactive discussions, and activities during face-to-face and asynchronous on-line group consultation sessions. The group consultation sessions were designed to provide teachers with self-help strategies for thinking, emoting, and behaving in productive ways in the classroom and school environments. REB-GC included a detailed overview of REBT, a presentation of the ABC model, techniques for challenging irrational beliefs, and classroom applications of REBT (see Appendix 1).

To date, few studies have been conducted on REBT and its impact on teacher beliefs. Warren (2010b) presented the impact of REBT interventions on teachers’ beliefs, however, teachers’ experiences of REB-GC is unknown. This article provides insight to teachers’ experiences with REB-GC.

Methods

Participants

Nineteen teachers volunteered to participate in REB-GC. The participants were teachers at an elementary school (K-5) in eastern United States. All participants were female; 79% identified themselves as white and 21% identified themselves as African American. Of the teachers, 42% had 1–10 years of experience, 26% had 11–20 years of experience, and 32% had 21 or more years of experience. Five participants had earned a master’s degree and two were National Board Certified Teachers.

Data Collection

The participants completed a questionnaire at the conclusion of the REB-GC (see Appendix 2). The questionnaire was administered by the school counselor in a large group setting. The questionnaire consisted of six items designed to illicit the teachers’ views of the REB-GC experience. The questions explored the teachers’ views of the consultation, including its perceived impact on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and interactions with others. Several of the items on the questionnaire elicited yes or no responses from the participants. The follow-up question “Why?” led the participants to provide more details for these items.

Data Analysis

Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR; Hill et al. 1997) was utilized in the analysis of the data collected in this study. A team of three formed to analyze the data. The team members included one current school counselor and two former school counselors. One of the former school counselors was the primary investigator of this study. All team members had previous experience with qualitative research. The team members were trained as suggested by Hill et al. (2005). Members of the team were provided with sample data and examples of data analysis in CQR. Moreover, team members were asked to review Hill et al. (2005) and refer to Hill et al. (1997) for further guidance.

Prior to the analysis, the primary investigator paid a third party to transcribe the questionnaire in a Word document. Transcribing the pencil-and-paper questionnaire responses to type served to provide clear and precise data for the analysis. Once transcription was complete, the data were distributed to the team members.

During the data analysis, team members initially identified domains based on the contents of the questionnaire and review of relevant literature. The identified domains were thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The team members individually reviewed the data and highlighted comments or phrases that were deemed significant in relation to the domains. The data that presented most relevant to the domains were called core ideas. Finally, categories were developed and organized based on a cross-analysis of the domains. The categories, domains, and core ideas were detailed in a table for visual display. This type of aid allowed further analysis across questions and conditions.

Methods were used to reduce researcher bias; however, bias cannot be eliminated. The development of a data analysis team aided in the reduction of researcher bias and the enhancement of reflexivity. In general, trustworthiness and credibility of the data analysis were enhanced by the consensual nature of CQR. A stability check was implemented to increase the trustworthiness of the analysis (Hill et al. 2005). Furthermore, credibility was established by presenting the data in raw form to preserve and display its rich detail. Additionally, an audit trail was utilized to ensure reliability throughout data analysis. Files containing raw data, transcriptions, coding, definitions, and thematic charts were included in the audit trail.

Due to the wording of questions four and six on the questionnaire, participants provided yes or no responses, followed with detailed explanations. Categorical data were compiled from these questions. This data are presented in percentages of participants who favor or oppose aspects of the interventions.

Qualitative Results

The original domains identified by the team members were modified slightly during the final analysis. While the emphasis remained on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, directionality was included for each domain. In other words, each original domain was expanded to represent the direction of change experienced by the teachers. The revised domains encompassing core ideas were identified as positive cognitive variance, emotional relief, and behavioral break. Additional domains (family, colleagues, students, and friends) were also included in the final analysis.

Two categories emerged from a cross-analysis of the domains (see Fig. 1). The first category, increased well-being, demonstrated the teachers’ perceived move toward an overall healthier way of life. The second category, improved relationships, captured the teachers’ perceptions related to the quality of interactions with others. These two categories encompassed all the data collected from the teachers participating in REB-GC. These categories, associated domains, and core ideas are expanded upon below.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Categories, Domains, and Core ideas of Teachers’ Response to REB-GC. Increased well-being comprises the domains (+ cognitive variance, emotional relief and behavioral break) that lead to improved relationships (family, colleagues, etc). PCV leads to ER and BB

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Increased Well-Being

Positive Cognitive Variance

Positive cognitive variance (PCV) was described as a change in teacher cognition that moves in the direction of realistic, logical, and flexible thought patterns. Several core ideas embodying PCV were derived from the data. Less demanding, more flexible, more reasonable, and acceptance were core ideas representative of the teachers’ responses in terms of well-being. A response exemplary of less demanding included, “I will monitor my thinking and the demands I am placing on myself.” Other comments consistent with this core idea were, “I’m trying not to be so controlling or demanding” and “It does no good to put demands on someone.”

The core idea, more flexible, encompassed responses from many of the participants. For example, one participant responded, “Changing my musts to preferences was beneficial.” Another participant indicated, “I don’t think people should, ought to, or must do something. I learned with this thinking you disappoint yourself.”

More reasonable, another core idea, emerged from the data collected from the participants. Many participants indicated thinking in more reasonable ways. One participant responded, “I find that I am able to let go of things much quicker, whereas before I would beat myself up over even small mistakes that I made. I am working on not allowing other people’s reactions to dictate my value as a person.” Another teacher stated, “I am realizing I can’t change others, but I can change how I react and feel.”

Several other responses were indicative of the final core idea, acceptance. A response exemplary of acceptance was, “I have tried not to worry so much about things I have no control over.” Another response consistent with this core idea was, “(I am) learning to accept that I cannot control everything.”

Emotional Relief

Emotional relief (ER), the second domain of well-being, was defined as a decrease in the intensity of teacher’s emotional response to adverse situations. Core ideas identified in this domain included relieves stress, decreases frustration, and emotional control. Many participants indicated the consultation helped to relieve stress. For example, one participant commented, “It (consultation) helps relieve some stress of our job.” Another participant indicated, “It (consultation) helps you be less stressed.”

The core idea, decreases frustration, also emerged as a result of numerous comments regarding the consultation. “It (consultation) made me aware of the unnec.(essary) frustration…” and “I may be calmer” were comments from two participants. Another participant indicated, “I feel as though it (consultation) has eased my frustration level some.” These responses, for example, were representative of the core idea, decreases frustration.

The final core idea to emerge from ER was emotional control. Many participants indicated that the consultation supported their emotional control. For example, one participant stated, “I have been able to control my feelings more.” Other comments related to emotional control included, “I try to take more responsibility for my reactions,” and “I decide what responses I will have.”

Behavioral Break

The last domain of this category was identified as behavioral break (BB). A behavioral break was defined as a change in the behavioral pattern that promotes teacher–student wellness, teacher–student performance, and encourages student–teacher relationships. Several core ideas emerged related to behavioral break. These core ideas included rewording, rational reaction, verbal control, and modeling. Comments that lead to the emergence of the core idea, rewording, included, “I use the words prefer and would like in place of should” and “(I use a) better choice of words.”

Another core idea, rational reaction, encompassed many responses from the participants. These responses included, “Limit overreactions and I react more rationally.” Another participant stated, “I can only do my part and control my actions.”

Many participants suggested the consultation influenced their verbal control. Comments consistent with this core idea included, “(I have) more patience and talk more to individual students.” One teacher indicated the consultation would have an effect, “especially the way I voice my expectations.”

A final core idea for BB, modeling, also emerged from the data collected from the participants. For example, one participant stated, “Use REBT as a model and inadvertently change student behavior.” Another participant responded, “Students will model what they see or begin to imitate rational thinking aloud when their admired adults exhibit (rational behavior).”

Improved Relationships

Teachers participating in the REB-GC noted improvements or the potential for improvements in their relationships with numerous individuals in their lives. The domains related to improved relationships were family, colleagues, students, and friends. Many teachers indicated the consultation could improve their relationships with family and friends. For example, one participant noted, “I can apply the ABCs of thinking when communicating with my spouse/family.” Other participants stated, “I think it (REBT) can be applied to my marriage” and “I can deal with my kids at home more rationally.” One other teacher indicated, “My relationships with family and loved ones can be impacted positively as my anger/frustrations are reduced.”

Teachers also suggested the consultation could improve their relationships with colleagues and students. For instance, one teacher replied, “Any part of it (REB-GC) may be beneficial in creating new views in the classroom and with co-workers.” Other teachers remarked, “It (REB-GC) has helped my interactions with students to be more productive” and “I feel more positive about responding to students needs.” Numerous responses to items throughout the questionnaire indicated participants perceived REB-GC could improve or had improved their relationships with others.

Quantitative Results

Descriptive statistical methods were used to calculate attendance rate and summarize the nominal data collected from several of the items on the questionnaire. In the final analysis, participants attended 108 of the 114 possible consultation sessions (95%). Seventeen out of 19 teachers (91%) participating in the consultation noted they thought REB-GC would continue to positively impact their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in the classroom. Additionally, 18 out of 19 (96%) participants stated they would recommend REB-GC to other teachers.

Discussion

The findings of this study suggest that REB-GC was well-received by participating teachers. The participants indicated their general thoughts were more flexible and realistic, they were less stressed, and responded to situations in more helpful ways. Teachers also perceived the consultation to positively influence their relationships with others.

The results of this study are consistent with research conducted by Forman and Forman (1980) and Warren (2010b). Forman and Forman (1980) found teachers to think more rationally after exposure to a series of REBT-based staff development trainings. Posttest mean scores were significantly lower than pre-test mean scores on the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT; Jones 1968) in terms of irrational beliefs. Furthermore, a course evaluation indicated teachers found the contents of the staff developments to be beneficial in their personal and professional lives (Forman and Forman 1980).

At the conclusion of the REB-GC, the teachers in this study indicated their thoughts were more rational. For example, one participant remarked, “If you believe that people should treat you in a certain way, then you are setting yourself up for a great disappointment.” PCV is exemplary of the participants’ shift in thoughts as a result of involvement in the consultation. The participants also suggested the strategies learned during consultation were useful in many facets of their lives. Teachers described utilizing the ABC model, for example, in classroom situations, while at the grocery store, and when communicating with their family members. The domain, improved relationships, demonstrates the impact of the consultation throughout the lives of the participants. These qualitative findings align with the quantitative results found in Forman and Forman (1980).

The findings of this study also support the claims offered by Warren (2010b). For example, numerous participants in this study reported improved ability to work with challenging students. Other teachers suggested utilizing “REBT as a model and inadvertently chang(ing) student behavior.” A decrease in irrational beliefs, such as authoritarian attitudes toward students (AATS), will likely increase teachers ability to respond effectively to adverse classroom situations. Appropriately responding to adverse classroom events will aid in the development of working relationships with students. Teachers may take note of their effectiveness in managing situations and relationship building, thus increasing their efficacy beliefs for classroom management (CM). An increase in well-being, demonstrated by shifts in cognition, emotions, and behaviors may lead teachers to be more flexible and understanding of their students, thus enhancing their relationships with others. The cyclical interaction between increased well-being and improved relationships is implicit in this example and demonstrative in Warren (2010b).

From a theoretical perspective, the findings of this study are consistent with REBT (Ellis 1962, 1975, 1991, 2000, 2003, 2005). It appears the REB-GC participants experienced changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Ellis (2000) suggested rational thoughts lead to healthy negative emotions such as bother, concern, or frustration. Helpful behaviors typically follow these types of emotions. The REB-GC participants appeared to experience a similar progression based on their responses to the questionnaire. In other words, the group consultation may have lead participants to experience changes in thought, or PCV, first. The development of a more rational philosophy was likely the result of self-reflection and self-analysis encouraged during REBT (Ellis 2003). The PCV appeared to lead to more functional emotions or ER. While teachers experienced ER, they were able to more effectively respond to adverse situations, thus a BB occurred. These shifts of well-being appeared to enhance the relationships teachers maintained with their students, colleagues, and family (see Fig. 1). The success of these interactions appeared directly related to PVC, ER, and BB. The impact of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors on relationships, as suggested by this study, is supported by Ellis and MacLaren (2005).

The participants appeared to remain engaged throughout REB-GC as evidenced by the high rate of attendance. Similar to the findings of Forman and Forman (1980), the majority of the participants found the REB-GC helpful and indicated they would recommend it to others. Aspects of the consultation that appeared most beneficial included: (a) the general promotion of other-, self-, and life- acceptance, (b) the acquisition of knowledge and techniques for challenging irrational thinking, (c) the application of REBT to classroom situations, and (d) the supportive nature of the consultant and co-participants. Additionally, a large majority of participants reported anticipating REB-GC would continue to influence their performance in the classroom. These findings appear to support many of the participants’ comments elicited during the qualitative analysis.

This investigation was conducted to offer insight to the experiences of teachers engaged in REB-GC. The main focus of this study was on the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes of the participants. Therefore, the impact of REB-GC on teacher practices, such as behavior management, was not examined. However, based on comments from many of the participants, REB-GC appears to indirectly influence behavior management practices. For example, one teacher stated, “Teacher choice of words has an impact on student behavior secondary to having an impact on self.” Another teacher indicated, “It (REB-GC) may cause me to reword my rules in the classroom.” While REB-GC provided self-help tools aimed at modifying teachers’ thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, it appears participants adjusted behavior management practices as well.

Several limitations should be noted as potentially hindering the reliability of the data collected in this study. However, this is exploratory research; any findings have the potential to contribute to current literature related to teachers’ experiences with social-emotional consultation.

Hill et al. (1997) recommend utilizing interviews during data collections in CQR, yet questionnaires are also a viable option when considering ethical concerns. For example, Williams et al. (1997) implemented a questionnaire in order to conceal the identities of participants expressing their thoughts and feelings of a pre-practicum experience. Due to anonymity when completing the questionnaire, participants in this study may have felt more comfortable reporting their true experiences verses providing socially desirable responses. Furthermore, participants may have processed and explained their experiences with greater clarity when formulating responses to the items on the questionnaire, than if an interview were implemented (Stiles 1997). However, the data collected during this study has the potential to lack depth and richness, otherwise obtained in interviews. Notwithstanding, this study offers several implications and recommendations for teachers and school counselors.

Implications and Recommendations

While certain limitations are evident, this study begins to suggest several implications for teachers, personally and professionally. Teachers are likely to utilize REBT principles and techniques to further develop and enhance their well-being and improve relationships with their family and friends. As teachers explained on the questionnaire, developing preferential and flexible philosophies towards others reduces frustration and fosters relationships. Teachers can also benefit professionally by implementing the strategies presented in REB-GC. Teachers, while less demanding and controlling, will likely develop more positive relationships with their students and colleagues.

Students may potentially benefit from teachers’ implementation of concepts learned in REB-GC. If teachers think in more logical and reasonable ways in the classroom, they may offer more effective instruction and increases in student achievement will likely result (Nucci 2002; Warren 2010a, b). Students may also form healthier relationships with their teachers as an indirect result of teachers’ exposure to REB-GC.

From a system support perspective, analyzing teachers’ views and thoughts of the effectiveness and utility of this model of consultation may provide school counselors with additional tools to impact teachers, students, and effect school-wide change. This study suggests that school counselors can work collaboratively to assist teachers in developing and increasing their sense of social-emotional well-being. By utilizing methods of consultation as suggested by Bernard and DiGiuseppe (1994), and more recently Baker and Gerler (2008), school counselors can support teachers by prescribing and initiating consultation such as REB-GC.

Based on the findings of this study, several recommendations for educational research and practice are worth noting. Conducting research to further explore the relationship between the categories and domains developed in this study could prove beneficial as school counselors continue to support teachers through consultation. Additional qualitative investigations, including interviews and focus groups, would offer further understanding of teachers’ views and experiences of school counselor support through social-emotional consultation. Observations of teacher–student interactions pre- and post-consultation may provide insight into the behavioral changes teachers may experience as a result of REB-GC. Additional research is needed to begin to offer generalizability of the present findings.

Teachers participating in this study frequently alluded to building relationships with others, especially students. Teachers stated they related, understood, and talked more with students as a result of REB-GC. Most teachers, however, often view their relationships with students as power-driven and management-oriented (i.e. behavior management, classroom management). These models promotes control and a “do as I say” mentality, as apposed to flexibility, acceptance, and emotional/behavioral ownership espoused through REB-GC. Therefore, these vastly different models of relationships should be further explored and compared. For example, research exploring the impact of REB-GC on teacher irrational beliefs and behavior management practices may yield valuable data. These explorations may provide school counselors with additional strategies to promote teacher–student relationships, enhance behavior management practices, and increase student achievement.

The results of this study are encouraging for school counselors eager to provide social-emotional support to teachers at their school. School counselors are in a position to play a vital role in providing consultation focused on the well-being of teachers. Through REB-GC, school counselors can indirectly impact all students by providing a framework for teachers to: (a) self-analyze, (b) explore classroom situations, (c) develop alternative solutions, and (d) foster relationships with their students. This move by school counselors to effect school-wide change is implicit in the ASCA National Model (2005) as well as the strengths-based school counseling movement (Galassi and Akos 2007). However, little research has been conducted on the impact school counselor consultation, such as REB-GC, can have on teachers, students, and schools. Further exploring ways school counselors can impact teacher and student performance through system support, such as social-emotional consultation, appears to be the next step in truly making school counseling programs strength-based and comprehensive.