Introduction

Research has consistently shown that children’s emotional and behavioral problems are an important predictor of unsuccessful fostering outcomes. Indeed, behavior problems among foster children have been widely studied in relation to their adaptation to foster care and to the success or failure of the placement, since such problems significantly increase the risk of a breakdown in the fostering relationship (Berridge 1997; Chamberlain et al. 2006; James 2004; Proctor et al. 2010; Sinclair et al. 2007). Studies comparing the rate of behavior problems among foster children with those found in the general population have generally concluded that such problems are more frequent and intense among the former group (Jiménez and Palacios 2009; Keller et al. 2001; Shore et al. 2002; Tarren-Sweeney 2008).

Difficulties in regulating temperament, especially in terms of impulsivity and attention deficit, have also been considered as indicators of a child’s adaptation to foster care. Various studies have analyzed the prevalence of hyperactivity and attention deficit among foster children, with the results generally showing these problems to be more common than is the case in the general population (Burge 2007; McMillen et al. 2005; Oswald et al. 2010; Pecora et al. 2009; Shin 2005).

Some of the variables that have been linked to foster children’s emotional and behavioral problems in the context of their foster family are the profile of the foster child (e.g., age, age upon entering foster care, maltreatment), the characteristics of the foster carers (e.g., the preparation and/or support received, and potential burden due to the foster placement), and the relationships established between the foster family and the child.

The characteristics of foster children that have been shown to be closely related to children’s emotional and behavioral problems within the foster family include their current age (Berridge 1997; Fernandez 2009; Moffatt and Thoburn 2001), their age at the time of being fostered (Fernandez 2009; Oosterman et al. 2007), and the reason for out-of-home placement (history of neglect, abuse, abandonment) (Barber et al. 2001; Webster et al. 2000). However, the meta-analysis carried out by Oosterman et al. (2007) identified older age at the start of fostering as the factor most strongly related to subsequent breakdown of the placement. In this context, Fernandez (2009) showed that the child’s age upon entering foster care is associated with the degree of integration achieved within the family, with children who were younger at the start of the placement becoming better integrated. Accordingly, Tarren-Sweeney (2008) showed that one of the main predictors of behavior problems was the child’s age when entering foster care.

Research has also examined the development of self-esteem among foster children, as this is a fundamental aspect related to the emergence of problems in childhood and adolescence. When children are able to gain a sense of protection and security within the family environment, they develop a more positive self-esteem than do those children who have experienced insecurity, neglect, and rejection (Bolger et al. 1998; Kim and Cicchetti 2006). In this regard, Ackerman and Dozier (2005) found that foster children are more likely to develop a positive self-esteem when their foster parents are more affectionate and tolerant.

Various studies have related the characteristics of the foster family (e.g., age of foster parents, their educational level, biological children in the home) to the child’s emotional and behavioral problems, although the findings are inconsistent. However, a strong relationship has been observed between the levels of burden experienced by foster parents and children’s difficulties within the foster family (Oosterman et al. 2007). For instance, Farmer et al. (2005) found that foster placements were less beneficial to the children involved when the foster parents reported stress. This research also revealed that foster parents reported higher levels of stress when foster children showed behavioral problems, as well as when the carers had difficulties contacting social workers for assistance. More recently, research has found that externalizing behavior problems among foster children are related to higher levels of parental stress and the use of more negative discipline practices (Vanderfaeillie et al. 2012; Vanderfaeillie et al. 2013).

Numerous studies have highlighted how foster placements are more problematic when there is inadequate preparation and support on the part of social workers, and also that better outcomes are achieved when these aspects are properly addressed (Buehler et al. 2006; Price et al. 2008; Sinclair et al. 2004; Triseliotis et al. 2000; Whenan et al. 2009). For instance, foster families felt supported and considered the work of social workers positively when the latter visited regularly, and when they gave the impression that they valued the foster parents’ work, listened attentively to them, and responded adequately to any requests and doubts they may have (Sinclair et al. 2004).

Research on family relationships has examined affective relationships and parental discipline style, which together are referred to as parenting style. Jiménez and Palacios (2009) found that the foster child’s progress was associated positively with an authoritative parenting style and negatively with authoritarian and permissive ones. Furthermore, children’s self-esteem was also positively associated with an authoritative parenting style. Finally, parenting styles were associated with the stress scores of foster parents, with stress levels being higher when the foster parents were more permissive or authoritarian, and less authoritative.

It has also shown that children are more likely to present impulsivity and lack of attention when, after being separated from their biological family, they are cared for by adults with an inappropriate parenting style (Lewis et al. 2007; Simmel et al. 2001). The study by Fernandez (2009) showed that an authoritarian and harsh parenting style on the part of foster parents was significantly associated with children obtaining scores within the clinical range for total problems on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Similarly, it has been found that fostering outcomes are better when the foster parents show greater warmth, are more attentive to the child’s needs, and when there is a more positive interaction between parents and child (Sinclair and Wilson 2003). Accordingly, children present more problems when their foster parents are more rejecting and show less warmth, with an additional important finding being that the child’s behavioral problems only lead to placement breakdown if the carers are rejecting (Sinclair et al. 2005). These authors also found that 52 % of the variability in behavior problems was explained by the child’s difficulties in establishing affective ties. In this context, Schofield and Beek (2005, 2009) argue that children make the most progress when they have secure attachment bonds with their foster family, and when the foster parents are more sensitive (empathic, understanding, communicative, etc.).

On the basis of this literature review the main aim of the present study was to identify the factors which are related to the greatest emotional and behavioral problems among children in the foster family context (i.e., behavior problems and impulsivity/inattention). It was expected that: (1) children who were older at the start of the foster placement would present more problems; (2) greater self-esteem would help children to reduce these problems; (3) burden among foster parents could increase the child’s problems; (4) the provision by social workers of preparation and support to foster parents could reduce not only their burden but also the foster child’s problems; and (5) an authoritarian parenting style, characterized by criticism/rejection and authoritarian rules, could lead to greater emotional and behavioral problems among children within the foster family.

Method

Participants

The study considered all foster placements that were registered in three Spanish provinces (Malaga, Granada, and Jaen), and which met the following criteria: (a) the foster child was over 5 years old, and (b) the child did not suffer from any severe physical, psychological, or sensory disability.

Participants were the foster children and their respective foster families. The sample comprised 104 non-relative foster children in long-term foster care (56 boys and 48 girls), whose mean age at the time of data collection was 11 years (SD = 3.2, range 5–17.8). The mean age of the foster children when taken into care was 7.29 years (SD = 3.39, range .5–14.8). Seventy of the children were of the same ethnicity as their foster parents (White European), while 34 were either Gypsy European or African. Most of the children had experienced at least one form of abuse and/or maltreatment prior to entering care. Specifically, 53.8 % had experienced neglect, 32.7 % had experienced physical and/or emotional abuse, and 11.5 % had experienced sexual abuse. Almost all the children (92.3 %) had been in residential care before starting the current foster placement, and 16.3 % had previous experience of fostering.

These children were being fostered in 86 families, corresponding to 71 foster fathers and 86 foster mothers. The mean age of the foster fathers and mothers was, respectively, 47.9 years (SD = 6.8, range 29.9–66.3) and 46.6 years (SD = 6.5, range 31.4–65.1). Of the 86 foster families in the sample, 80.2 % were heterosexual couples, 4.7 % were homosexual couples, and 15.1 % were single parents. All the single parent caregivers were female. As for biological children, 40.7 % of foster families had no children of their own, 16.3 % had one child, 31.4 % had two, and 11.6 % had three or more. The majority of foster families (68.6 %) had one foster child, 27.9 % had two foster children, and 3.5 % had three foster children. Twenty-four foster fathers and 28 foster mothers had a higher educational degree, 20 foster fathers and 27 foster mothers had completed secondary education, and 24 foster fathers and 26 foster mothers had only primary education. The remaining foster parents (three foster fathers and five foster mothers) had not received formal schooling.

Procedure

Access to foster families and information about the foster placements was authorized and provided by the Child Protection Agency in each of the three provinces (Malaga, Granada, and Jaen). Data confidentiality was ensured by assigning a code number to each case. The first step involved completing the Data Collection Sheet (see below), which was done in collaboration with the child protection agencies. The families were then visited at home so that foster parents and children could respond to the respective questionnaires.

Measures

Data Collection Sheet (Bernedo et al. 2008a). This instrument was used to record the descriptive characteristics of the foster children and their respective foster families.

Questionnaire About the Preparation and Support Received (Bernedo et al. 2008b). This was administered to foster parents. It comprises 15 items that are scored on a five-point Likert scale (1 = none, 5 = a lot). Four of these items refer to preparation (e.g., “Training and preparation received from the case worker prior to fostering the child”), while the remainder evaluate the support given during the foster placement (e.g., “Advice from the case worker on bringing up the child”). Analysis of the questionnaire’s internal consistency yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .90 for this sample.

Affect Scale (Bersabé et al. 2001). This was administered to foster parents. It comprises 20 items distributed across two factors (10 items each), which are scored on a Likert scale (1 = never, 5 = always). Factor I (Warmth/Communication) evaluates the warmth, interest, and communication expressed by foster parents in relation to the foster child (e.g., “If he/she has a problem, he/she can tell me about it”). Factor II (Criticism/Rejection) assesses the degree of criticism or rejection shown by foster parents towards the child (e.g., “I wish he/she was different”). For the present sample the internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was .87 for warmth/communication and .78 for criticism/rejection.

Rules-Demands Scale (Bersabé et al. 2001). This was also administered to the foster parents. It comprises 30 items distributed across three factors (10 items each), all of which are scored on a five-point Likert scale and refer to the disciplinary strategies used by parents. The three factors are as follows: (a) Factor I (Authoritative Rules): establishment of rules and an explanation of why they must be respected (e.g., “I make it very clear what he/she should or shouldn’t do”; (b) Factor II (Authoritarian Rules): imposition of rule compliance coupled with strong demands (e.g., “I punish him/her severely so that he/she doesn’t disobey again”); and (c) Factor III (Permissive Rules): absence of rules or weak demands that they be complied with (e.g., “If he/she gets angry, then he/she always gets what he/she wants”). In the present sample the Cronbach alpha values for the internal consistency of these three factors were, respectively, .77, .63, and .75.

Zarit Burden Interview (Zarit and Zarit 1983). The present study used a Spanish version of this instrument that has been adapted and validated for use with foster carers (Del Valle et al. 2008). This scale assess the degree of subjective burden experienced by foster parents by means of 22 items, each of which has five possible response categories (scored 1–5) (e.g., “Do you feel stressed by trying to combine caring for your child with your other responsibilities?”). The reliability of the Zarit Burden Interview (Cronbach’s alpha) was .74 in the current study.

Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/6-18; Achenbach and Rescorla 2001). This test forms part of the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA, Achenbach 1991). It assesses behavioral problems in children and was completed by foster parents. Each item on the checklist has three response options: (0) not true; (1) somewhat or sometimes true; and (2) very true or often true. Both CBCL subscales (Internalizing problems and Externalizing problems) were used in the present study, yielding a total score for behavioral problems (internalizing + externalizing). The internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was .97 in the current sample.

Conners’ Parent Rating Scale-Revised (Conners 1997). This scale was adapted so that foster parents could assess attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There are two scale forms (short and long) available, and the short form includes the 12-item ADHD Index, which can be used to identify those children or adolescents who are most likely to fulfill the diagnostic criteria for ADHD (e.g., “Inattentive, easily distracted”). This is the index that was employed in the present study. Items are scored on a four-point Likert scale (from 0 to 3). The internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was .92 for the current sample.

Self-Esteem Questionnaire (García-Torres 2001). This evaluates the child’s self-esteem. It comprises 48 items divided into six subscales (dimensions): physical, social, family, intellectual, personal, and perceived control. The present study only considered the dimension concerning personal self-esteem, which constitutes a global appraisal of oneself (e.g., “I like the way I am”). Each item has five response options (never, not very often, sometimes, a lot of the time, and always). Cronbach’s alpha for this sample was .87.

Design and Statistical Analysis

SPSS 18 was used to carry out a descriptive analysis and to compute bivariate correlations so as to determine the shared variation between pairs of variables. A structural equation model (SEM) was designed and tested in order to examine children’s emotional and behavioral problems in the foster family context. The statistical package AMOS 18 was used to calculate the variance/covariance matrix from which the model would be estimated. Model parameters were estimated by means of the maximum likelihood (ML) method. The fit of the model was evaluated on three levels: the overall model, the measurement model, and the structural model (Byrne 2001; Lévy-Mangin and Varela 2006). The overall fit of the model was assessed using three kinds of measures: indices of absolute fit (χ 2, RMSEA, and GFI), of incremental fit (NFI, TLI, and CFI), and of parsimonious fit (AIC and PGFI).

Results

The variables considered in order to study children’s emotional and behavioral problems within the foster family were “Internalizing + Externalizing problems” and “impulsivity/inattention”. The analysis also took into account several characteristics of the foster children (age at the start of the foster placement and personal self-esteem) and their respective foster families (burden due to fostering and their rating of the preparation and support received from social workers). The parenting style of foster parents was studied by means of the factors established in the Affect Scale (Warmth/Communication and Criticism/Rejection) and the Rules-Demands Scale (Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive rules). The descriptive statistics for these variables are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Mean, standard deviation (SD), and minimum and maximum values of the study variables (N = 104)
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Table 2 shows the matrix of correlations between all the variables. It can be seen that the strongest associations were those between “Internalizing + Externalizing problems” and the other study variables, as well as between the criticism/rejection factor and the other variables.

Table 2 Pearson correlations between the study variables
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As per the conventions of SEM, modeling stages were performed until achieving the final model specification. When constructing the structural model, checks were carried out to ensure that the basic assumptions required for the correct application of this statistical analysis were fulfilled (Batista and Coenders 2000; Byrne 2001; Hancock and Mueller 2006; Lévy-Mangin and Varela 2006).

Design of the Theoretical Model and Model Specification

The design of the theoretical model was based on previous research regarding foster children’s problems, as well as on the associations found between study variables. The design of the model to be estimated is represented by the path diagram in Fig. 1, which shows the relationships between the different variables.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Path diagram of the theoretical model proposed to explain children’s emotional and behavioral problems in the foster family context

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Estimation of the Model and Evaluation of Goodness-of-Fit Criteria

Firstly, the AMOS program was used to check whether the data showed univariate and multivariate normality, the latter being assessed by means of the test of multivariate kurtosis (Mardia 1970, 1974) incorporated within the program. Some of the variables introduced showed a mild deviation from univariate and multivariate normality. It was therefore decided to use the ML method, as this is a robust procedure when only small deviations from normality are present (Batista and Coenders 2000; Kline 2005; Lévy-Mangin and Varela 2006). At all events, the robustness of the results was tested by means of a bootstrap procedure with 500 replications, which confirmed that the estimates were sufficiently robust and, therefore, not affected by the slight lack of normality (Byrne 2001). The p value of the Chi squared test was also readjusted using the bootstrap procedure of Bollen and Stine (1992), and as the value obtained was greater than .05 the model was acceptable. Finally, the data were examined for the presence of any atypical values by means of the Mahalanobis distance, there being no case in which the p value was less than .0001 (which would require the value to be eliminated).

The data were then checked to ensure that there were no offending estimates (negative error variance, standardized coefficients above 1, or very high standard errors) and that all the direct effects proposed by the model were significant. This was the case in all the relationships between the variables analyzed except for that between the variables “preparation and support”’ and “foster carer burden”; this was expected given the lack of a linear relationship between the two variables. The conceptual model was therefore modified slightly due to the elimination of this relationship.

Having carried out the above checks, the next step was to assess the goodness of fit. The values of the global fit indices indicated that the model showed an adequate fit (Table 3). The only sub-optimum indicator was the NFI, whose value (.86) was slightly lower than the recommended cut-off (.90). However, the values of the TLI and CFI show that the model fit is adequate.

Table 3 Fit indices for the structural equation model used to explain emotional and behavioral problems among foster children (N = 104)
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In order to test the fit of the measurement model it was then necessary (a) to check that the factor loadings obtained between the indicators and their latent variables were statistically significant and high (above .6), and (b) to check the reliability of each one of the latent variable indicators by means of its associated coefficient of determination. These two criteria were fulfilled in the case of the latent variable “children’s emotional and behavioral problems” but not for “authoritarian parenting style”, where the factor loading obtained between the indicator “authoritarian rules” and the latent variable was significant but low (.34). Furthermore, this latent variable included a value of explained variance associated with the indicator “authoritarian rules” which was also low (.11). These problems could indicate that despite the theoretical coherence of the concept “parenting style”, whereby it is based on both affective relationships and the type of rules established by parents, the affective factor may have more weight than the type of discipline used. Therefore, the initial theoretical model was re-specified, separating the two factors and analyzing, once again, the theoretical proposals and the relationships observed between the variables.

Modification and Re-specification of the Model

The new proposal was similar to that of the first model, but with the following modifications: (a) both the child’s age at the start of the foster placement and the preparation and support received by foster parents will only exert an influence on affective relationships (the criticism/rejection factor), as in the correlational analyses these two variables are not linked to the factors of the Rules-Demands Scale; (b) for the same reason, the child’s self-esteem will only be affected by the criticism/rejection factor, and not by authoritarian rules; (c) criticism/rejection will increase the burden experienced by foster parents, which in turn will influence their chosen parenting style, leading to an increase in the use of authoritarian rules; and (d) both criticism/rejection and the use of authoritarian rules will increase children’s emotional and behavioral problems (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Path diagram for the modified standardized solution model used to explain children’s emotional and behavioral problems in the foster family context

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Having made these modifications the model was then estimated again. The univariate normality of the data was the same as in the previous model, since the variables introduced were also the same. The multivariate normality improved slightly, although there remained a mild deviation from normality. A bootstrap procedure with 500 replications was again applied and indicated that the estimates were robust and, therefore, not affected by this slight lack of normality. As the bootstrap procedure also yielded a p value >.05 for the Chi squared test, the model could be accepted.

Having checked that there were no offending estimates, or estimated coefficients in the measurement model that exceeded acceptable limits, the next step was to assess the overall model, the measurement model, and the structural model. As regards the former, Table 4 shows the fit indices for the modified model.

Table 4 Fit indices for the modified model used to explain emotional and behavioral problems among foster children (N = 104)
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The values of these indices are substantially better than those of the first model. With respect to the indicators of parsimony (AIC and PGFI), it can be seen that the value of the AIC (57.14) is now lower than that of the first model (62.38), indicating that the modified model is the most parsimonious of the two. Similarly, the PGFI has risen from .42 in the first model to .45 in the modified model, which again indicates greater parsimony in the latter.

As regards the fit of the measurement model, examination of the factor loadings obtained among the indicators of the only latent variable in the model (“children’s emotional and behavioral problems”) showed them to be significant and high (above .60), as in the previous model. The reliability of these indicators was also very similar, with values of .79 for the indicator “Internalizing + Externalizing problems” and .37 for “impulsivity/inattention”.

Finally, taking into account the fit indexes of the modified model, the coefficients were statistically significant. The coefficient of determination (R 2) for the modified model in relation to the explained quotient variance of the dependent variable (i.e., children’s emotional and behavioral problems) was fairly high (.53), indicating that the modified model shows a satisfactory structural fit and provides good explanatory power for children’s emotional and behavioral problems.

The path diagram for the modified model (Fig. 2) shows the variance in “children’s emotional and behavioral problems” (R 2 = .53) that is explained by the variables included in this model. The effect size corresponding to the coefficient of determination is high (f 2 = 1.13), and it can be seen that the direct predictors of children’s problems within the foster family are foster carer burden (γ = .37, p < .001), the use of authoritarian rules by foster parents (γ = .30, p < .01), the child’s self-esteem (γ = −.27, p < .01), and criticism/rejection by the foster parents (γ = .21, p < .05).

Finally, the statistical significance of the indirect effects between variables was calculated by means of a bootstrap procedure with 500 iterations and a 90 % confidence interval, the analysis showing that all the indirect effects were significant.

Discussion

This study has analyzed children’s emotional and behavioral problems in the context of their foster families, mainly in relation to internalizing and externalizing problems and impulsivity and lack of attention. This was done by examining the relationships between these problems and a number of variables related both to the children themselves (age at the start of the foster placement and self-esteem) and their respective foster parents (parenting style, burden, and preparation and support received).

Structural equation modeling was conducted to determine the variables that influenced problems among foster children. On the basis of previous research (e.g., Fernandez 2009; Oosterman et al. 2007) it was expected that older age at the start of the foster placement would be associated with more behavior problems. Although the correlational analyses showed no significant relationship between the child’s age at this point and the indicators of children’s emotional and behavioral problems, this relationship was confirmed by the results obtained with the adjusted model. In this model, the child’s age at the start of the foster placement was found to exert a positive and significant indirect effect through other mediating variables. Specifically, the model estimation showed that children’s age influences their problems through the criticism/rejection shown towards them by their foster parents (i.e., older age at the start of the foster placement implies more criticism/rejection, which leads to greater problems). These results are consistent with those of previous studies, which showed that children who are younger when entering foster care adapt better than their older counterparts (Jiménez and Palacios 2009; Oosterman et al. 2007). However, in the present study the child’s age at the start of the foster placement was only indirectly related to the children’s problems, it being mediated by the affective relationships established with the foster parents. This association was not considered in the literature reviewed here, and the present finding suggests that it is ultimately the criticism/rejection of foster parents that influences the child’s emotional and behavioral problems.

The results obtained in the definitive model also confirmed the direct negative association between foster children’s self-esteem and the problems they experience. This suggests, in line with the ideas of Schofield and Beek (2005, 2009), that the development of greater self-esteem would be a factor of resilience in relation to the child’s integration within the foster family. It should be noted, however, that none of the studies reviewed here reported that greater self-esteem among foster children would reduce their problems, although Ackerman and Dozier (2005) did find that more affectionate relationships between foster parents and children were associated with a better self-image in the child. The present results are consistent with this statement, since criticism/rejection on the part of foster parents was found to have a negative influence on the child’s self-esteem. Thus, affective relationships within the foster family appear to be an important variable as regards the child’s ability to develop adequate self-esteem.

According to the hypothesized model, foster carer burden could increase the child’s problems. This was confirmed by the results of the model estimation, which showed a direct relationship between these two aspects. Foster carer burden was also found to have an indirect influence on children’s emotional and behavioral problems through the application of authoritarian rules by foster parents. Specifically, greater burden increased the likelihood of authoritarian parenting, which in turn led to more problems. The studies by Farmer et al. (2005) and Fernandez (1999) also found important relationships between foster carer burden and children’s behavioral problems. The present results therefore confirm the need to reduce the stress and burden experienced by foster families so as to enable foster children to adapt better to their new environment.

It was also proposed that both foster carer burden and the emotional and behavioral problems of children could be reduced if the carers received better preparation and support. The results of the model show that preparation and support had an indirect influence on these aspects through mediating variables (e.g., criticism/rejection). These findings are also consistent with previous studies on the influence of preparation and support on both the problems of foster children (e.g., Buehler et al. 2006; Price et al. 2008) and the burden experienced by their carers (e.g., Sinclair et al. 2004). However, in contrast to some previous research (e.g., Murray et al. 2011; Sinclair et al. 2004) the results did not reveal a direct influence of preparation and support on foster carer burden. This may suggest that not all types of preparation and support have the same effect on the burden felt by foster parents.

Finally, it was expected that an authoritarian parenting style, characterized by criticism and rejection and the application of authoritarian rules, could predict more emotional and behavior problems and greater impulsivity/inattention. This was also confirmed by the results derived from the definitive model, which suggest that the more authoritarian the foster parents are, and the more criticism/rejection they show towards the child, the greater the child’s problems will be. Criticism/rejection on the part of foster parents could also increase emotional and behavioral problems through its influence on both foster carer burden and the child’s self-esteem. These results indicate that both parenting style and the kind of affect shown by foster parents towards the child are important predictors of the latter’s problems. However, in terms of predicting these problems, the criticism/rejection shown by foster parents appears to be more important than the style of discipline used. Thus, the warmth component not only exerts an important direct influence on the child’s problems, but also has indirect influence through all the variables to which children’s problems are related. These findings are consistent with those obtained by Sinclair and Wilson (2003) and Sinclair et al. (2005), who found that the amount of warmth shown by carers towards foster children was the variable with the greatest predictive power as regards the outcome of foster placements. Schofield and Beek (2005) also showed that children adapted better to foster care when foster parents were more sensitive in their relationships with them.

It is also important to note that the definitive model revealed a relationship between burden and authoritarian parenting, such that the greater the burden the more likely it is that foster parents will resort to authoritarian rules, which in turn could lead to greater emotional and behavioral problems among children. None of the studies reviewed here reported this specific association, although they do support the point made earlier about the need for intervention programs that reduce the burden experienced by foster families, as this is one of the strongest predictors (either directly or indirectly through other variables) of problems in foster children.

The present study does have certain limitations. Firstly, the overall variance in children’s emotional and behavioral problems that was explained by the model is quite high, with the main aim of the study being to identify this. However, it may be advisable to propose more ambitious models that include the influence of other variables which have been considered in previous studies, for example, the age or educational level of the foster parents (Sinclair et al. 2005), or variables related to the child such as the kind of maltreatment suffered prior to being fostered (James 2004; Sinclair et al. 2005).

Another limitation of the study concerns the use of self-report measures, as the participants’ responses may be subject to social desirability bias. Nevertheless, the fact that the present results are highly consistent with the extant literature suggests that any such bias is of limited importance. Mention should also be made of the fact that the study sample was drawn from a particular geographical area, as this could affect the generalizability of results. Once again, however, previous studies of emotional and behavioral problems among foster children (Fernandez 2008; Jiménez and Palacios 2009; Sinclair et al. 2005; Tarren-Sweeney 2008) provide support for the present findings.

Finally, it would be advisable to test both directions of the proposed model and compare the results. It would also be useful to corroborate the results by means of longitudinal designs that could confirm the strength and direction of the relationships observed here.

Despite these limitations, a strength of the present study is that it proposed a theoretical model regarding children’s problems within the foster family context and then tested this model through the design and fit of a SEM. The results of recent studies that were taken into account when developing this model, as well as the associations between variables that were found here, provide evidence of the dependent relationships between fostering outcomes and certain characteristics of foster parents and children. However, the model obtained here adds to this knowledge by offering a global explanation of how these variables are related to one another and how they affect a child’s problems within his/her foster family. The data also reveal the important role played by the expression of affect by foster parents, as this has both a direct influence on the child’s problems and an indirect influence through other key factors such as the child’s self-esteem and the burden experienced by carers. These results may be useful in terms of identifying those potential foster parents whose characteristics make them best suited to the task of fostering, and should also serve to highlight the importance of promoting good affective relationships through the preparation and support which social workers can offer to foster carers.

In terms of specific implications for practice, the results regarding an authoritarian parenting style suggest that greater emphasis should be placed on both the selection and training of foster families. When it comes to assessing the suitability of potential foster carers, specific instruments should be used to detect the parenting styles of candidates. This could help to avoid the selection of foster carers who are more likely to show criticism/rejection and to take an authoritarian approach to parenting. As for training, programs could be implemented to help foster families acquire positive parenting strategies and to avoid authoritarian parenting.

Regarding the burden experienced by foster carers, different forms of support could be implemented along the lines of the proposals made by various authors (Luke and Sebba 2013). For example, training programs could be used to help foster carers develop ways of coping with the foster child’s behavioral problems. Regular training sessions for foster carers should also include the opportunity for them to share experiences with other carers and to engage in joint problem-solving. Another form of support might be to provide a free 24-h helpline through which foster carers could request help from social services and receive timely advice about how to solve parenting dilemmas involving their foster children (Farmer et al. 2005; Selwyn and Quinton 2004).