1 Introduction

Land use change has become the major concern of recent studies since the twentieth century due to global warming, particularly the conversion of the natural forest area into agricultural land and bare land. Such conversion in various land types is considered to major threat to physiochemical soil features (Yeboah et al., 2022). The changing trend of land use into land degradation is increasing all over the world consisting of 30% of forest land, 20% of cultivated, and 10% of grazing land. Hectares of forest area are converted into agricultural land annually. Usually, 2.6 billion people are overstated through land degradation and desertification globally, which influences more than 33% of the world's land (Amana et al., 2012; Bai et al., 2008). Furthermore, such conversion of land use types into various classes has negative impacts on sustainable crop patterns, land structure, soil fertility, and land use planning (Opio-Odongo, 2013; FAO, 2017). The impacts of land degradation on different sectors are dependent on regional climate types. In the arid region, the conversion of land use has negative impacts on sustainable agriculture and green economic growth.

This study would be helpful for scientific developments in crop and soil research, such as higher-quality seeds, appropriate irrigation, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides, transforming many countries' food security status into the world's leading agrarian nations during the green revolution in arid climate. Continuous advancements drive modern agriculture in digital technological innovations and information, transportation, and collaborations between farmers and scientists in the public and private sectors. The intertwined networks of modern technology have resulted in a systems-driven revolution in agriculture that can provide more efficient, equitable, and environmentally sustainable ways to produce and deliver food. However, this large-scale and complex technological advancement comes with the risk of increased vulnerability with an ever-increasing risk of catastrophic outcomes. The multiple risks related to agriculture are interconnected. Farmers and decision makers can only address these interconnected risks through a coordinated, interdisciplinary approach that incorporates knowledge from various academic fields, including natural science, ecology, genetics, anthropology, engineering, sociology, public policy, politics, and economics for an arid climate.

Many studies have been conducted to assess the effects of soil physicochemical properties under different land use types in the world (Hasan et al., 2020; Malek & Verburg, 2020; Lin et al., 2021). Ullah et al. (2019) identified the negative impacts of temperature on land use in Pakistan's lower Himalayan regions. The analysis was computed using the remote sensing-based technique. Similar studies were also conducted to measure the impact of climatic elements using remote sensing and GIS tools (Wang et al., 2001; Nwachokor & Uzu, 2008). Hasan et al. (2020) showed that forest area is disappearing in the Cox's Bazar–Teknaf Peninsula of Bangladesh between 2019 and 2027. Yohannes et al. (2021) measured the variation in the land use characteristics of the Blue Nile area of the Ethiopian highlands using the pre-processing image classification approach. Dhani et al. (2021) analyzed the compressive strength features of Overboulder Asbuton and soft soil and showed that zeolite addition might increase the soil density and increase its compressive strength. Ekeleme et al. (2021) investigated the modeling-based contaminant transport of nitrate in soil columns. The analysis showed the calibration and verified the utilization of the model which sustains the soil fertility. In addition, many scientific research studies have also investigated the soil properties in the different arid regions of the world (Islam & Weil, 2000; Jaiyeoba, 2003a, b; Jackson et al. 2014a, b). Islam & Weil (2000) analyzed the land use effects on the soil quality of forest land in Bangladesh. Jaiyeoba et al. (2003a, b) investigated the changes in the soil properties in cultivated land areas of the Nigerian regions. Jackson et al. (2014a, b) examined the physicochemical properties of wetland regions having an arid climate. These studies have evaluated soil texture variations which are dependent on soil structure. The analysis showed the five microelements in the soil that are characterized by various types of land types and their utilization patterns. Hussain and Al-Fatlawi (2020) investigated the effects of chemical contaminants from potable water through household water treatment systems. The findings revealed that soil acted as a filtering medium in detained salts. The study also analyzed the impacts of overflow, seepage, disintegration, soil profundity, and soil fertility which vary from place to place. The different soil properties like pH, OC, sand, and clay materials are profoundly associated with various land types (Northcliff, 2006; Wakene & Heluf,2001; Rabot et al., 2018). The development of various land types is highly dependent on soil quality, fertility, and type. The soil properties and climate factors are the main determinants of land use suitability and stability for effective agricultural practices (Rao & Pant, 2001).

For sustainable agriculture, soil texture is considered the main component. Few studies measured the effects of soil texture on root penetration, water retention, and infiltration (Klute & Page, 1986; Davidson & Ackerman, 1993; Eliasson, 2007). Negassa and Gebrekidan (2003) measured the impacts of soil nutrients such as W, Mo, Sn, Zn, Cu, As, Sb, Ba, Ni, Cr, V, and Ti that are essential for preventing eolian erosion due to their deposits. The soil's texture is the main attribute that may be classified as a physical property, according to the Indian Society of Soil Science. Additionally, the soil's texture changes, and its reliability is enhanced by the soil's water-holding capacity, rate of infiltration, and drainage (Bhowmik et al., 2019; Jourgholami et al., 2019). Such changes negatively impact the water capacity, air circulation, rate of infiltration, waste, and soil texture. Physical characteristics of soils, such as the soil reaction (pH), are also calculated in a few studies (Gorbachev et al., 2011; Costa et al., 2018; Tateno & Takeda, 2003; Turner et al., 1997). The results revealed that the soil’s acidity or alkalinity level reveals whether the environment is acidic or alkaline. The soil displays a higher acidity level between pH 7 and 0. While the soil seems more alkaline, the pH ranges from 7 to 14 (Xu & Wan 2008; Haghighi et al., 2010).

Similarly, few investigations were studied to analyze slope variation which has major effects on the soil nutrient particles in cultivated land and forest land (Burke et al., 1999; Darwish & Abdel Kawy, 2008). The studies revealed that the physicochemical properties of soil have negative and positive effects on soil quality and land use patterns in various land types. The assessment of physiochemical features of the organic and non-organic elements has a significant impact on soil fertility (Brhane & Mekonen, 2009; Gashaw et al., 2014). The physicochemical properties of the soil are changing due to land degradation, desertification, soil depth, and climate change across various land types (Bruun et al., 2015; Smith & Doran, 1997; Klute & Page, 1986; Nelson & Sommers, 1996; Blake & Hartge, 1986; Castillo & Gómez, 2016). The soil classes are classified according to physiochemical properties based on spectral analysis. From such a point of view, from the previous research, there was no study found on the physicochemical properties of the soil at various land types including cultivated land, forest land, and grazing land with various depths in the arid region of Pakistan.

The total area of Pakistan is 79.6 million hectares, of which 70 percent is arid to semi-arid. Pakistan has an agro-based economy. There is a little fluctuation in climatic parameters, particularly precipitation affects the soil texture that negatively impacts the crops (Rabi and Kharif) and land use patterns. The need for sustainable land use and ecosystem conjures the improvement of soil quality through creating effective site-specific actions to control erosion and restore soil quality. Thereby improving the conditions and productivity of agro-based landscapes, a comprehensive study is needed to evaluate the effects of the soil features in the three types of lands (forest, grazing, and cultivated) in the arid regions of Pakistan. Moreover, this study is helpful for for-land-use planning, regional agricultural growth enhancement, and improvement in irrigation water quality. This study is unique in terms of the various depth of soil and land classes in an arid region of Pakistan.

2 Materials and methods

In the current investigation, a statistical average and Pearson correlation methods were used to analyze the concentration of the soil properties in various land units. The fundamental assumption made in the current research is based on the soil conditions of various classes in the southwest regions of Pakistan. The samples were collected from the arid regions of Pakistan. More than 70% area of Pakistan was classified into arid and semi-arid regions. From the selected site selection, from each land use category (cultivated, forest, and grazing areas), three kinds were chosen and repeated five times. Using an auger, 15 soil subsamples were taken at depths of 0–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm. The GPS was used to determine the elevation, latitude, and longitude of the research location. Plants, furrows, old manures, moist patches, and regions close to trees were not considered when collecting the sample.

In addition, three key components—soil depth, sample intensity per site area, and sampling design—are thought to be the foundation of soil sampling. For the establishment of soil-sampling techniques to track changes in key soil fertility indices, these aspects are therefore crucial. The two most used methods for soil sampling are zone sampling and grid sampling. The quality of the soil sample collected determines how reliable the soil test will be. In the present study, the zone sampling method was used to indicate the average soil test values of the five sample points of the various depths. The accuracy of the zone sampling method relies on the amount and quality of the data utilized to determine zone attributes, topography, and geography. The layers such as soil maps, aerial photography, yield maps, topography maps, management history, and personal field experience might provide accurate and valuable knowledge about the field variation. Such knowledge could be used to determine the sample to management zones in the field survey. Table 1 indicates the scale used for the analysis of the physicochemical soil features.

Table 1 The methodology used for the analysis of physicochemical soil properties
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Davidson and Ackerman (Negassa & Gebrekidan, 2003) exhibited that zone soil sample design consists of the genetic horizon and soil carbon losses due to various types of crop cultivated patterns. Furthermore, considerable heterogeneity was found in various characteristics of soil at the local level which relied on the depth. An auger depth method of profiling was utilized in those places where poorly drained places were marked. There are locations where there is no depth limitation issue area where the samples were collected. They were dried in the air at room temperature up till the soil tests were not performed. Every inspection location carries a subcategory sample, and land units were collected in a plastic sheet bag. A laboratory was informed to receive and I-kg composite soil sample from each group after the mix to conduct additional analysis. Figure 1 shows the methodology flowchart of this study.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Methodology flowchart for the assessment of soil features

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The appropriate name for each class was written on a plastic bag. Moreover, collected samples have more two types of limitations including ground well and depth. The soil sample was changed into liquid by dissolving a suitable solvent in the collected samples. The samples were tested in the laboratory through analytical procedures of the atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS). This spectrometer supports the spectroanalytical process for the quantitative concentration of the chemical parameters through the absorption of radiations by free atoms in a gaseous state. Light optical radiation was used for the observation of the chemical concentration of the elements. The elements quantified by ASS are listed in Table 1. Mercury hydride system (MHS), flame, and graphite furnace techniques were used to measure the concentration of elements up to parts per million. AAS 700 model of AAS was used to measure the features of various soil types.

Furthermore, the analytical process was determined by various approaches such as soil texture and porosity. To assess the cation exchange capacity (CEC), first was calculated the milliequivalents of H, K, Mg, and Ca per 100 g of soil. For example, for the H, meq /100 g soil = 8 (8-buffer pH), K meq/100 g soil = Ibs/acre extracted K / 782. The saturation of the base was calculated as the percentage of CEC occupied by the base cations. The soil porosity is the percentage of soil that has pore spaces. % porosity = (1-bulk density/particle density) *100. Soil texture was calculated by the hydrometer method which measures the percent contribution of clay, silt, and sand.

The method suggested by Blake and Hartge (1986) was used to determine the bulk density of the soil. The bulk density of the soil is determined using the BD = M/V function. M is the soil's weight, and V is the total volume of dirt. The process outlined in the following formula is used to determine the moisture contents of the soil.

$${\text{Moisture}}\,{\text{ content}} = {\text{Fresh }}\,{\text{soil }}\,{\text{weight}} - {\text{Dry}}\,{\text{ soil }}\,{\text{weight}}/{\text{Dry }}\,{\text{soil}}\,{\text{ weight }}*{\text{1}}00.$$

While soil EC and pH were determined by the meter in 1:5 soil, water expansions were described by Smith and Doran (1997). Furthermore, soil organic matter is defined by the method of mineralogy analysis (Smith & Doran, 1997). Global positioning system (GPS) and clinometers were used to recognize geological areas, and the elevation of various places is included in the sampling separately. To evaluate the effects of micro- and macronutrients on soil types, analytical and statistical techniques were used. The significant relationship between nutrients and land categories (forest land, cultivated land, grazing land) was identified by the Pearson correlation statistical method. Correlation values from the analysis are used to compare the strength of the relationship between various land types at various depths and observed nutrients.

3 Results

3.1 Physical properties of soil taxonomy

3.1.1 Variation of soil texture, densities, and porosity in soil fertility

Land usage, soil porosity, and soil fertility had an impact on the sand and clay portion of soil. Additionally, land use, the impacts of soil texture, and density also had a significant impact on fraction of silt. The difference in fraction of sand, sediment, and clay elements over different land units was mainly due to variation in slope, organic material, and land use practices (Thangasamy et al., 2005). The results revealed that a small fraction of sand was noted in the cultivated and grazing land and high fraction of sand was observed in forest land. The outcomes revealed that a high clay fraction was found in the cultivated and grazing land areas (Table S1). Taking into consideration the various types of land types, the sand portion is diminishing with an increase the soil fertility. Sitanggang et al. (2006) also reported that cultivated and grazing land have small fraction of sand and fertility of the region was increased.

From the qualitative and quantitative analysis, we have observed no impact of textural class over all types of investigating land classes. Table S4 indicates the fraction of sans in the all-sample soils of the three land types. The analysis indicates a higher sand portion (67%) over the forest land. Comparatively, a small portion of sand was noticed in the cultivated land. The table analysis showed a higher cultivated land ratio (38%) in the depth between 20 and 40 cm in the class 5 sample layer. Similarly, the highest sediment ratio (26%) is found in class 2 layer of grazing land.

To evaluate the impacts of soil features in various soil depths, the maximum value of sand (67%) was found in the depth of 0–20 cm over the forest land. The maximum value of sediment (26%) was also found in the subsurface (20–40 cm) on grazing land. Similarly, the higher concentration of texture (38%) was found at a soil depth (20–40 cm) in the cultivated land. According to detailed observation, it is found that soil texture at such depth removed the soil sheets resulted in breakdown of silt and decrease the soil fertility. However, differences in the size of particle characterization are significantly influenced by the impacts of deforestation and old traditional practices like the terracing and grazing culture in the high slope areas. The depths from 0 to 60 cm were also significantly influenced by variation in land-use practices. The results of this study were consistent with previous studies (Ramsey, 2011).

The analysis showed that bulk has the negative effects on soil sheets and removes the fertility of soil over various land use patterns. Comparatively, the significant high bulk density (1.44 g/cm3) was recorded in the cultivated and the low-density value (1.11 g/cm3) over the forest land (Table S2). Figure 2 indicates the variation of the bulk density over the various land types in various depths. The lower value was identified in the forest land. According to the comparison investigation, the quantity of sand in the different classes of cultivated land was low observed in the forest land. In contrast to cultivated and forest land, silt was less dominant in grazing land and is shown in Table S3.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Categorization of sand, silt, and clay at various depths for a forest land, F = stands for the forest land for five samples F-1 to F-5 b grazing land, G = stands for the grazing land for five samples G-1 to G-5

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Additionally, compared to cultivated and grazing land, forest land has more concentration of clay. The finding observed that intense approach of cultivation increases the density in the cultivated land than forest land. The outcomes of this study are like previous study (FAO, 2012). The soil contents (clay, silt, and sand) have significant negative and positive effects on land deforestation and degradation. Figure 3 indicates the increasing trend of soil porosity among three types of land use classes. The results revealed that the density of bulk along various types of land use patterns does not vary due to fluctuation in the depth scale of soil. Therefore, density expands from 20–40 to 40–60 cm in grazing areas and diminishes in the forest and cultivated lands. However, this variation has negative impacts on the land use patterns, soil fertility, and soil quality. Moreover, the porosity of soil was influenced by various land-use patterns, depth of soil layers, and soil porosity level. Ramsey (2011) was also reported that forest land has the highest potassium value due to which soil mass thickness decreased, because the soil porosity was conversely connected with the residue part of the soil in the layers of forest land (Table S3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

The TP value of the various land samples in percentage (%) a The % TP value of five samples for the cultivated land C-1to C-5 b The % TP value of five samples for the forest land. c The % TP value of five samples for the grazing land

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3.2 Chemical properties of soil taxonomy

3.2.1 Impacts of chemical elements on soil fertility

Plants' ability to develop properly was greatly dependent on the pH-H2O value of the soil. Land type also is considered a key factor for the growth and development of plant. The pH value of the soil decreases when forest land is turned into agricultural land. Many scientists have observed that soil layers have low pH values, when turning forest land into agricultural land (Wakene & Heluf 2003; Mohammed et al., 2005). Various features of soil at various depths soil reaction, electrical conductivity, soil organic matter, nitrogen, carbon to nitrogen ratio, phosphorus, and potassium over the soil of cultivated land are shown in Table S4. According to the analysis, the greatest (7.1) and lowest (4.1) soil pH values were observed for forest (Table S5) and grazing (Table S6) lands, respectively. Due to its higher porosity and lower soil fertility than the other land types, grazing land indicated the highest value. This fluctuation brought changes in vegetation cover and land use patterns. The contents of soil organic matter (OM) were found to be maximum (1.85%) for cultivated and less (0.36%) for grazing lands. For the grazing land, the fertility sheet was destroyed due to more grazing activity that removed the organic matter layer on the soil sheet. However, least concern was noticed in the grazing land than cultivated land. The farmers normally added the organic matter at the time of crop cultivation. The high organic matter increased the soil porosity which increased soil fertility. The range of the organic matter was recorded from 0.36 to − 1.85% in the various layers of land units. The soil capacity to stabilize, mineralize, and sustain plant growth in cultivated land is influenced by the variation of OM quantity in the various layers of soil. The nitrogen (N) quantity of the soil was influenced via variations in land use pattern, soil profundity, and the connection of land use to soil profundity. Various fractions of the OM quantity are listed in table S5 and S6. The normal estimations of N were 0.12% of cultivated land and 0.02% of the grazing land. The mean N content diminished significantly in the subsurface (40–60 cm) in grazing land. Similar results were observed in the previous study in other regions (Mohammed et al., 2005).

The concentration of N in different land units has an impact on soil fertility. Less concentration of N decreased the soil quality leading to deforestation, and persistent development, delivering the terrain's barren and reduced agricultural production. In the grazing and forest land areas, the small portion of the clay and OM was credited to the crop’s growth. The result also showed that OM contents were recorded more in the grazing land at 0–20 cm depth. Such contribution of the organic matter substances makes the soil quality well and reliable. This makes sure sustainable and proper crop growth. Many scientists have analyzed that high quantity of OM contents in the soil increases the fertility of soil for cultivated land as compared to forest and grazing land (Bewket & Stroosnijder, 2003; Nega & Heluf, 2013). Moreover, plant growth is inhibited by concentration of OM. The pH-H2O value of the soil was also essential. The analysis shows that greatest (7.1) and lowest (4.1) soil pH values were observed for the grazing and forest land, respectively. This is because the conversion of forest land to cultivated land lowers the soil pH (Table S6, S7). Due to its greater porosity and lower fertility, grazing land had the best value when compared to other land types. This variation led to enhancement in the vegetation cover and land use patterns.

3.2.2 Impacts of phosphorus and potassium on soil fertility changes

The cultivated land contains the highest ratio of mineral potassium (K) as compared to other land types. The outcome demonstrated that changes in land-use covers have an impact on phosphorus (P). The concentration of K and P elements of soil layers varies on different depth layers in the forest land (Table S5) and grazing land (Table S6). The high quantity of phosphorus was highly identified in grazing land than other land types. The analysis showed a high concentration value 14.77 mg/kg in the phosphorous over the grazing land and lowest concentration value of 5.58 mg/kg in the cultivated land. Moreover, a higher concentration of 129.63 mg/kg potassium was observed in the forest layers and lowest 36.19 mg/kg in the grazing land (Table S9). Figure 4 indicates the soil reaction (pH) at various depths for cultivating land, forest land, and grazing land. In a Nutt shell, lower concentration of K and P substances in the grazing land reduced the soil fertility that has significant negative impacts on the crop’s growth. Edmeades (2003) evaluates the three factors that are considered very essential for the growth of plants growth, namely nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium resulted in increased soil fertility. The soil quality has dependency on the quality of the soil samples at the various depths. The lower value of soil reaction (pH) at various depths for cultivating land is essential for sustainable agriculture and land use planning.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Soil reaction (pH) values of the five samples from each land type are depicted. The pH values are obtained by chemical analysis for a cultivated land, b forest land, and c grazing land

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3.2.3 Impacts of cation exchange capacity and percent base saturation on soil quality

The concentration of calcium was fundamentally influenced by land use type at various depths of soil layers. The maximum and minimum values of the calcium concentration in cultivated land types are shown in Table S7. Results showed that the highest concentration of calcium 19.89 cmol ( +) /kg was found in the grazing land. In the context of soil depth into different types of land use, the maximum 19.89 cmol ( +)/kg calcium value was identified in the forest layer at a depth of 20–40 cm and minimum 12.47 cmol ( +) /kg value was exhibited on grazing land at depth of 40–60 cm.

The analysis also showed that maximum,9.64 cmol ( +)/kg of magnesium was observed in the cultivated land (Table S7) and minimum 2.13 cmol ( +)/kg was found in the grazing land (Table S9). Additionally, interaction effects of land use patterns and soil depths in the composition of K elements were recorded at depths of 20–40 and 40–60 cm. The maximum 0.97 cmol ( +)/kg K values were found in the subsurface layers of the forest land and minimum 0.37 cmol ( +)/ kg values in the grazing land (Fig. 5). These parameters are the contributor of acid-forming fertilizer that influences the K + in soil systems over the soils of tropical and subtropical climate.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Changes in the concentration of percentage base saturation (PBS) of soil samples taken from various depths a cultivated land, b forest land, and c grazing land

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Table S8 indicates the composition of the Na at forest land soil layers. From the results, it was showed that 0.79 cmol ( +)/kg) Na was observed in the forest land and 0.34 cmol ( +)/kg was found in subsurface layers of cultivated land. Furthermore, a significant positive relationship between land use and soil types was found in the forest and cultivated land. Table S11 shows the composition of the CEC in the various types of soil depth in different land types but was significantly impacted by the depth of soil classes. In arid regions, the depth of soil and land type has significant impacts on soil quality and fertility. The results of this study are like previous study (Nega and Heluf, 2013).

CEC concentration at various depth layers of soil t was significantly influenced by traditional activities and land units. From the results, 47.48 cmol ( +)/kg CEC was observed in the forest and 29.42 cmol ( +)/ kg was found in subsurface layers of grazing land. In addition, maximum CEC has a strong relationship with yield of agricultural crops and more than 10 coml. ( +) kg − 1 is analyzed for suitable crop cultivation (FAO, 2012), whereas PBS maximum value of 61.15% is measured in the cultivated and minimum 31.06% value in the forest land. The trend of the percent base saturation of soil was more found in grazing land as compared to other types of arid region soil.

3.2.4 Impacts of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu) on soil fertility and quality

The depth of the soil, soil fertility, and land use are all significantly influenced by the micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu). The soil fertility was assessed using the compositions of micronutrients. Table S12 indicates the values of the micronutrients in the grazing land. The grazing land had maximum value of Fe (88.63 mg/kg), Mn (188.35 mg/kg), Zn (3.76 mg/kg), and Cu (2.76 mg/kg) (Fig. 5). The cultivated land's soil quality and fertility were significantly influenced by the concentrations of Fe, Mn, and Cu compounds than other land use types. The maximum (78.31 mg/kg soil) and lower (32.15 mg/kg soil) Fe value has been examined in the cultivated land C4 (Table S10) and for forest land 40-60 cm layer, respectively (Table S11). These findings are like to Sims and Johnson (1991). The 2.5–4.5 mg/kg and 1–50 values of the Fe and Mn are considered very important for efficient crop cultivation. According to research, soil contains varying amounts of Ca, Mg, K, and Na, with concentrations ranging from 12.47 to 23.88, 2.40 to 9.17, 0.57 to 0.89, and 0.37 to 0.50, respectively, in the forest land (Table S8). The subsurface layers of forest and cultivated land had great mean estimates of PBS (61.54 percent) and the lowest (25.14 percent), respectively (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
figure 6

Changes in the concentration of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu) in different soil samples under different land use types a cultivated land, b forest land, and c grazing land

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4 Discussion

In the era of global warming, the concept of the land use change has gained much attention. The conversion of the natural land covers area into human-dominated land use system. Such changes into land types have the significant effects on the environments and physiochemical soil features. Therefore, the effects of soil physicochemical properties under different land use types were evaluated in the arid zones of Pakistan. The 15 soil samples were evaluated from Pakistan's dry areas using the land use survey approach. Atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) was used to examine the effects of physiochemical elements on soil fertility. Through the absorption of radiation by free atoms in a gaseous state, this spectrometer determined the quantitative concentration of the observed micro- and macronutrients in the soil. The scale table of the contents provided by FAO was used to interpret the concentration of soil nutrients. The analysis will help for the crop-soil studies and improve the water resources in arid regions. The multiple risks related to agriculture development would reduce and reduced the land degradation occurrence.

The result shows a high concentration of the organic matter (OM) in the grazing and cultivated land types. This concentration increases the fertility of soil which enhances the soil texture. Olowolafe (2004) also reported that concentration of organic matter increases the soil fertility and carbon to nitrogen ratio. These factors are considered the primary elements of crop growth and development. In addition, the precipitation and temperature also affect the carbon to nitrogen ratio. The arid regions have low ratio as compared to cold regions. The outcomes of this study are similar to Prasad and Power (1997). Moreover, from the detailed analysis, it was stated that high 67% ratio of carbon to nitrogen was noted in forestland, and lower percentage (38%) was found in the cultivated land. In the grazing land, 26% silt is recorded over the arid regions of Pakistan. The analysis also reveals a high bulk density 1.44 g/cm3 in the cultivated land and lowest 1.11 g/cm3 in the forest land. Similarly, the OM concentration was highest recorded (1.80%) over the cultivated land and lowest (0.36%) in the forest land over the arid regions of Pakistan. Many previous studies also identified the lowest amount of OM in the grazing and forest land regions (Woldeamlak & Stroosnijder, 2003; Mohammed et al., 2005; Ahmed, 2002).

The findings reveal high 0.13% amount of N element in the cultivated land and lowest 0.02% in the forest land. The highest amount (14.77 mg/kg) of P substance and lowest (5.58 mg/kg) were noted in the grazing and the cultivated lands, respectively. Similar outcomes were listed in the previous many studies (Darwish & Abdel Kawy, 2008; FAO, 1976, 1983, 2007a, b). Many scientists also analyzed that high P substance in the soil layers decreases the fertility for the forest lands than others land types over the arid areas (Bewket & Stroosnijder, 2003; Gebeyaw, 2007). The K element has highest (129.63 mg/kg) and lowest (36.20 mg/kg) concentration in the forest and cultivated lands, respectively. Wakene and Heluf (2003) indicated that strength of K amount measures the soil quality. The greater amount of the K substance exhibited the good quality of soil for agricultural production. In the context of Ca substance, high concentration (19.89 cmol( +)/kg) was measured in the grazing land and the lowest amount (12.47 cmol( +)/kg) was noticed in the cultivated land. The same outcomes were reported by Wakene and Heluf (2003). Although method of nutrient extraction was different from current study (Wondimagegne and Abere, 2012). The maximum high amount of Mg (9.64 cmol( +)/kg) was recorded in the cultivated land and the minimum (2.13 cmol ( +)/kg) in the grazing land. Similar results were reported in previous research studies (Ahmed, 2002; Wondimagegne and Abere, 2012). The current study was focused on arid regions. The maximum Na value (0.79 cmol( +)/kg) was reported in the forest land, and the minimum value (0.34 cmol ( +)/kg) was noticed in the cultivated land.

Furthermore, the study of soil samples indicates 37% clay in the cultivated land, 65.95% sand, and 23.85% silt was recorded in the forest land. According to detailed observation, it is stated that grazing land has the highest micronutrient concentrations at all observed depths of soil. The pH value in the forest and cultivated land was found to be maximum (4.7) and minimum (7.8), respectively. For forest and cultivated land types, the extractable micronutrient quantity was determined to be in the following order: Mn > Fe > Cu > Zn, while the reverse order was identified in the grazing land over the arid regions. Result also shows that N has found a significant relationship with Zn, Cu, and Mn, while phosphorous showed a significant effect on Ec, K, and Fe. A significant relationship was measured between potassium and Ec, P, and Cu. The micronutrients have a positive relationship between Fe, Ec, P, and Cu. On the same way, Cu has a significant relationship with P, K, Fe, and Mn. In addition, Mn has a significant relationship with N and Cu.

5 Conclusions and recommendations

The current study determines the effects of the soil physiochemical features under three different soil depths over the arid regions of Pakistan. The land was divided into three subdivisions: cultivated land, forest land, and grazing land. Soil fertilities were characterized by five subclasses included the very low, low, medium, high, and very high fertility. The primary key parameters of the soil fertility P, K, CEC, Ca, Mg, pH, OM, T.N, and micronutrients were examined in the present study. The findings reveal the 37% clay in the cultivated land, 65.95% sand, and 23.85% silt were recorded in the forest land. Moreover, the TP maximum (58%) and minimum (49%) amount was measured for the forest and cultivated land, respectively. The high concentration of the organic matter (OM) was identified in the grazing and cultivated land types, but more than 50% Om was recorded below the low class. The concentration of k element is high 93.25 mg kg−1 found in the cultivated land and lowest 23.34 mg kg−1 in the forest land. Similar trends of the PBS values were found for the cultivated and forest land with higher (62%) and lower (25%) values.

For forest and cultivated land types, the extractable micronutrient quantity was identified in the following order: Mn > Fe > Cu > Zn and reverse order was identified in the grazing land over the arid region of Pakistan. The analysis also indicates that N has a significant relationship with Zn, Cu, and Mn, while phosphorous showed a significant effect on Ec, K, and Fe. A significant relationship was also observed versus potassium and Ec, P, and Cu. The micronutrients (Zn, Cu, and Mn) have a positive relationship between Fe, Ec, P, and Cu. On the same way, Cu has a significant relationship with P, K, Fe, and Mn. Moreover, Mn has a significant relationship with N and Cu. The concentration of the soil nutrients in different land classes is very necessary to identify the impacts of nutrients on the soil and water conservation strategies. Keeping such view, the effects of soil physiochemical features play a vital role in the green innovation which decreases the yield losses from soil degradation, soil quality and enhances sustainable agriculture. The soil structure would be improved that boosts the sustained land use planning. Moreover, the public institute’s rural development programs might be flexible regarding the agro-ecological regions of Pakistan.

Soil degradation is major threat for the sustainable agriculture. There are four ways to overcome the issue of the soil degradation. (i) crop rotation, (ii) terracing slopes, (iii) strip farming, and (iv) artificial and natural windbreaks (shrubs). The results of the current study were used to document the effects of soil nutrients in different land types over the arid areas of Pakistan. Therefore, we recommended framing a holistic thinking approach to resolve the complex multiple risks in agriculture networks. This pragmatic problem-solving approach can help farmers and policy makers make sustainable choices. Prescriptive strategies for resolving these concerns have been recommended to lower risk and enhance resilience in agricultural practices. There are two types of risk reduction measures implemented on the farm and shared with others. The following recommendations are given below.

  • Integrated risk assessment models have significant potential to address and mitigate future environmental concerns. For example, a model was designed to study the carbon tax impact on land-use change over time, which could have significant policy repercussions. Thus, such models can clearly understand how certain risks evolve.

  • We need to change the government's attitude and behavior to provide nutritious food instead of just giving food.

  • Nutritionist participation and influence are required in policy making and should be encouraged.

  • Improving the nutrition of the crop through biofortification through breeding can help mitigate nutrition and health risks in agriculture.

  • Efforts need to be made in countries like Pakistan, where a deadly combination of high fertility and low yield occurs. Educating girl children and reducing child mortality can lower the birth rate. This will solve food-related demographic risks.

  • Through education and awareness, the global consumer behavior of wealthier demography needs to be shifted from a less sustainable diet (animal protein) that poses risks to the agriculture network.

  • Agriculture's dynamic network is impossible to comprehend fully, and human players must recognize that multiple risks are inherently harder to identify and eliminate. Therefore, self-awareness and knowledge, education, open and honest debates, and self-realization of our flaws as farmers, policy makers, and consumers can help improve agriculture more effectively.

  • “Paternalist policies” can help people pre-commit to long-term objectives and reduce the chances of poor decisions. Making even if resource scarcity occurs, small farmers can make the correct decision. Thus, it can mitigate the behavior risks and bad decision making.

  • Grassroots women farmers' empowerment in terms of education, providing legal land ownership rights this will allow women farmers to access to loans, assets, technology, irrigation, and inputs.