Abstract
An investigation is reported of the degree of metal pollution in the sediments of Kafrain Dam and the origin of these metals. Fourteen sampling sites located at Kafrain Dam were chosen for collecting the surface, cutbank, and dam bank sediment samples. The sediment samples have been subjected to a total digestion technique and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometer for metals including Pb, Zn, Cd, Ni, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, and Fe. XRD analyses indicate that the sediments of Kafrain Dam are mainly composed of calcite, dolomite, quartz, orthoclase, microcline, kaolinite, and illite reflecting the geology of the study area. The enrichment factor (EF) and geoaccumulation index (I geo) have been calculated and the relative contamination levels assessed in the study area. The calculations of I geo are found to be more reliable than of those of EF. The enrichment of metals in the study area has been observed to be relatively high. I geo results reveal that the study area is not contaminated with respect to Ni, Co, Cr, Cu, and Mn; moderately to strongly contaminated with Pb; and strongly to extremely contaminated with Cd and Zn. The high contents of Pb, Cd, and Zn in the study area result from anthropogenic activities in the catchment area of the dam site. These sources mainly include the agricultural activities, sewage discharging from various sources within the study area (effluent of wastewater treatment plants, treated and untreated wastewaters, and irrigation return water), and the several industries located in the area. Degrees of correlations among the various metals in the study area are suggested by the results and the intermetallic relationship.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Abu-Rukah, Y. (2001). Metals distribution and speciation in sediments from Ziqlab Dam—Jordan. Geological Engineering, 25, 33–40.
Adefemi, O. S., Olaofe, O., & Asaolu, S. S. (2007). Seasonal variation in metal distribution in the sediment of major dams in Ekiti-State. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6, 705–707.
Alloway, B. J. (1990). Metals in soils. London: Wiley.
Balls, P. W., Hull, S., Miller, B. S., Pirie, J. M., & Proctor, W. (1997). Trace metal in Scottish estuarine and coastal sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 34, 42–50.
Baptista Neto, J. A., Smith, B. J., & McAllister, J. J. (2000). Metal concentrations in surface sediments in a nearshore environment, Jurujuba Sound, Southeast Brazil. Environmental Pollution, 109, 1–9.
Bettinetti, R., Giarei, C., & Provini, A. (2003). Chemical analysis and sediment toxicity bioassays to assess the contamination of the River Lambro (Northern Italy). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 45, 72–78.
Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Suruvi, N. I., Dampare, S. B., Islam, M. A., Quraishi, S. B., Ganyaglo, S., et al. (2010). Investigation of the possible sources of heavy metal contamination in lagoon and canal water in the tannery industrial area in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. doi:10.1007/s10661-010-1557-6.
Bowen, H. J. M. (1979). Environmental chemistry of the elements. New York: Academic.
Calmano, W., & Wellerhaus, S. (1982). Dredging of contaminated sediments in Weser estuary: Chemical forms of some metals. Environmental Technology Letters, 3, 199–208.
Calmano, W., Ahlf, W., & Forstner, U. (1990). Exchange of heavy metals between sediments components and water. In J. A. C. Brockaert, S. Gvear, & F. Adams (Eds.), Metal speciation in the environment, NATO ASI series G 23503.
Cevik, F., Göksu, M. Z., Derici, O. B., & Fındık, O. (2009). An assessment of metal pollution in surface sediments of Seyhan dam by using enrichment factor, geoaccumulation index and statistical analyses. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 152(1–4), 309–317.
Chapman, P. M. (2000). The sediment quality triad: Then, now and tomorrow. International Journal of Environmental Pollution, 13, 351–356.
Chen, C. W., Kao, C. M., Chen, C. F., & Dong, C. D. (2007). Distribution and accumulation of metals in sediments of Kaoshiung Harbor, Taiwan. Chemosphere, 66, 1431–1440.
Christophoridis, C., Dedepsidis, D., & Fytianos, K. (2009). Occurrence and distribution of selected heavy metals in the surface sediments of Thermaikos Gulf, N. Greece. Assessment using pollution indicators. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 15, 1082–1091.
Conrad, C. F., & Chisholm-Brause, C. J. (2004). Spatial survey of trace metal contaminants in the sediments of the Elizabeth River, Virginia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49, 319–324.
Dassenakis, M., Scoullos, M., & Gaitis, A. (1997). Trace metals transport and behaviour in the Mediterranean estuary of Acheloos river. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 34, 103–111.
Datta, D. K., & Subramanian, V. (1998). Distribution and fractionation of metals in the surface sediments of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna river system in the Bengal basin. Environmental Geology, 36(1–2), 93–101.
Ergin, M., Saydam, C., Basturk, O., Erdem, E., & Yoruk, R. (1991). Metal concentrations in surface sediments from the two coastal inlets (Golden Horn Estuary and Izmit Bay) of the northeastern Sea of Marmara. Chemical Geology, 91, 269–285.
Esen, E., Kucuksezgin, F., & Uluturhan, E. (2010). Assessment of trace metal pollution in surface sediments of Nemrut Bay, Aegean Sea. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 160, 257–266.
Forstner, U. (1990). Contaminated sediments. Lecture notes in earth science. Berlin: Spinger.
Forstner, U., & Wittmann, G. T. W. (1983). Metal pollution in the aquatic environment. New York: Springer.
Galanopoulou, S., Vegenopoulos, A., & Consispoliatis, N. (2009). Anthropogenic metal pollution in the surficial sediments of the Keratsini Harbor, Saronikos Gulf, Greece. Water Air Soil Pollution, 202(1–4), 121–130.
Gee, G. W., & Bauder, J. W. (1986). Particle-size analysis. In A. Klute (Ed.), Methods of soil analysis, Part 1 (pp. 383–412). Madison: American Society of Agronomy.
Ghrefat, H. A., & Yusuf, N. (2006). Assessing Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Cd pollution in bottom sediments of Wadi Al-Arab Dam, Jordan. Chemosphere, 65, 2114–2121.
Gómez-Parra, A., Forja, J. M., DelValls, T. A., Sáenz, I., & Riba, I. (2000). Early contamination by metals of the Guadalquivir estuary after the aznalcóllar mining spill (SW Spain). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40, 15–23.
Gowd, S. S., Reddy, M. R., & Govil, P. K. (2010). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in soils at Jajmau (Kanpur) and Unnao industrial areas of the Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 174, 113–121.
Harte, J., Holdren, C., Schneider, R., & Shirley, C. (1991). Toxics A to Z, a guide to everyday pollution hazards (pp. 478). Oxford, England: University of California Press.
Horowitz, A. J., & Elrick, K. A. (1987). The relation of stream sediment surface area, grain size and composition of trace element chemistry. Applied Geochemistry, 2, 437–451.
Izquierdo, C., Usero, J., & Gracia, I. (1997). Speciation of metals in sediments from salt marshes on the southern Atlantic coast of Spain. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 34, 123–128.
Jones, B., & Turki, A. (1997). Distribution and speciation of metals in surficial sediments from the Tees estuary, north-east England. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 34(10), 768–779.
Kamala-Kannan, S., Batvari, B., Lee, K., Kannan, N., Krishnamoorthy, R., Shanthi, K., et al. (2007). Assessment of metals (Cd, Cr and Pb) in water, sediment and seaweed (Ulva lactuca) in the Pulicat Lake, South East India. Chemosphere, 71(7), 1233–1240.
Kamala-Kannan, S., Batvari, B., Lee, K., Kannan, N., Krishnamoorthy, R., Shanthi, K., et al. (2008). Assessment of metals (Cd, Cr and Pb) in water, sediment and seaweed (Ulva lactuca) in the Pulicat Lake, South East India. Chemosphere, 71(7), 1233–1240.
Karadede, H., & Unlu, E. (2000). Concentrations of some metals in water, sediment and fish species from the Ataturk Dam Lake (Euphrates), Turkey. Chemosphere, 41, 1371–1376.
Kennish, M. J. (1992). Ecology of estuaries: Anthropogenic effects. Marine Science Series. USA: CRC.
Kulahci, F., & Sen, Z. (2008). Multivariate statistical analyses of artificial radionuclides and metals contaminations in deep mud of Keban Dam Lake, Turkey. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 66, 236–246.
Larsen, B., & Jensen, A. (1989). Evaluation of the sensitivity of sediment monitoring stationary in pollution monitoring. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 20, 556–560.
Lopez-Sanchez, J. F., Rubio, R., Samitier, C., & Rauret, G. (1996). Trace metal partitioning in marine sediments and sludges deposited off the coast of Barcelona (Spain). Water Resources, 30(1), 153–159.
Loska, K., & Wiechula, D. (2003). Application of principal component analysis for the estimation of source metal contamination in surface sediments from Rybnik Reservoir. Chemosphere, 51, 723–733.
Malkawi, A. I. H., & Al-Sheriadeh, M. (2000). Evaluation and rehabilitation of dam seepage problems. A case study: Kafrein dam. Engineering Geology, 56, 335–345.
McCave, I. N. (1984). Size spectra and aggregation of suspended particles in the deep ocean. Deep Sea Research, 31, 329–352.
Meza-Figueroa, D., Maier, R. M., de la O-Villanueva, M., Gómez-Alvarez, A., Moreno-Zazueta, A., Rivera, J., et al. (2009). The impact of unconfined mine tailings in residential areas from a mining town in a semi-arid environment: Nacozari, Sonora, Mexico. Chemosphere, 77(1), 140–147.
Mohsen, M. S. (2007). Water strategies and potential of desalination in Jordan. Desalination, 203, 27–46.
Mucha, A. P., Vasconcelos, M. T. S. D., & Bordalo, A. A. (2003). Macrobenthic community in the Doura estuary: Relations with trace metals and natural sediment characteristics. Environmental Pollution, 121, 169–180.
Müller, G. (1979). Schwermetalle in den Sedimenten des Rheins—Veränderungen seit 1971. Umschau, 24, 778–783.
Muller, G. (1981). Die Schwermetallbelstung der sedimente des Neckars und seiner Nebenflusse: Eine Bestandsaufnahme. ChemikerZeitung, 105, 156–164.
Nobi, E. P., Dilipan, E., Thangaradjou, T., Sivakumar, K., & Kannan, L. (2010). Geochemical and geo-statistical assessment of heavy metal concentration in the sediments of different coastal ecosystems of Andaman Islands, India. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 87(2), 253–264.
Nriagu, J. O. (1989). A global assessment of the natural sources of atmosphere trace metals. Nature, 338, 47–49.
Nuremberg, H. W. (1984). The voltammetric approach in trace metal chemistry of natural waters and atmospheric precipitation. Analytica Chimica Acta, 164, 1–21.
Routh, J., & Ikramuddin, M. (1996). Trace-element geochemistry of Onion Creek near Van Stone lead–zinc mine (Washington, USA). Chemical Geology, 133, 211–224.
Rubio, B., Nombela, M. A., & Vilas, F. (2000). Geochemistry of major and trace elements in sediments of the Ria de Vigo (NW Spain). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40, 968–980.
Salameh, E. (1996). Water quality degradation in Jordan: Impacts on environment, economy and future generations resources base. Jordan: Royal Society of the Conservation of Nature.
Salomons, W., & Forstner, U. (1984). Metals in the hydrocycle. New York: Springer.
Sanchez, J., Marino, N., Vaquero, M. C., Ansorena, J., & Legórburo, I. (1998). Metal pollution by old lead–zinc mines in Urumea river valley (Basque country, Spain). Soil, biota and sediment. Water Air Soil Pollution, 107, 303–319.
Schiff, K. C., & Weisberg, S. B. (1999). Iron as a reference element for determining trace metal enrichment in Southern California coast shelf sediments. Marine Environmental Research, 48, 161–176.
Schuurmann, G., & Market, B. (1998). Ectotoxicology, ecological fundamentals, chemical exposure, and biological effects. New York: Wiley.
Tam, N. F. Y., & Wong, W. S. (2000). Spatial variation of metals in surface sediments of Hong Kong mangrove swamps. Environmental Pollution, 110, 195–205.
Turekian, K. K., & Wedepohl, K. H. (1961). Distribution of the elements in some major units of the earth’s crust. Geological Society of America, 72, 175–192.
Van de Guchte, C. (1992). The sediment quality triad: an integrated approach to assess contaminated sediments. In P. J. Newman, M. A. Piavaux, & R. A. Sweeting (Eds.), River water quality, ecological assessment and control. Brussels: ECSC-EEC-EAEC (417–423).
Wen, X., & Allen, H. E. (1999). Mobilization of metals from Le An River sediments. Science of Total Environment, 227, 101–108.
Williams, T. M., Rees, J. G., Kairu, K. K., & Yobe, A. C. (1996). Assessment of contamination by metals and selected organic compounds in coastal sediments and waters of Mombasa, Kenya. Technical Report W C-96-37, 85 pp.
Williams, T. M., Rees, J. G., & Setiapermana, D. (2000). Metals and trace organic compounds in sediments and waters of Jakarta Bay and the Pulau Seribu Complex, Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40, 277–285.
Yaqin, J. I., Yinchang, F., Jianhi, W. U., Tan, Z. H. U., Zhipeng, B., & Chiqing, D. (2008). Using geoaccumulation index to study source profiles of soil dust in China. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 20, 571–578.
Zhang, J., & Liu, C. L. (2002). Riverine composition and estuarine geochemistry of particulate metals in China—Weathering features, anthropogenic impact and chemical fluxes. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science, 54, 1051–1070.
Zollmer, V., & Irion, G. (1993). Clay mineral and metal distribution in the northeastern North Sea. Marine Geology, 111, 223–230.
Zoumis, T., Schmidt, A., Grigorova, L., & Calmano, W. (2001). Contaminants in sediments: Remobilization and demobilization. The Science of the Total Environment, 266, 195–202.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ghrefat, H.A., Abu-Rukah, Y. & Rosen, M.A. Application of geoaccumulation index and enrichment factor for assessing metal contamination in the sediments of Kafrain Dam, Jordan. Environ Monit Assess 178, 95–109 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1675-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1675-1