“When, why, and how do people living in a democracy become radicalized to the point of being willing to use or directly support the use of terrorist violence against civilians, and when, why, and how might they de-radicalize and draw back from such action? The empirical basis for understanding the background factors and trigger events pushing or pulling people towards Islamist militancy is very limited. Moreover, there is no consensus within the research community as to which theories and approaches offer the most promising avenues for further exploration”.—A. Dalgaard-Nielsen, DIIS WP no. 2008/3:17.

Introduction

by Alex P. Schmid

Much of terrorism research has been driven by political processes following significant terrorist attacks. When Aum Shinrikyo launched a Sarin gas attack in the Tokyo subway in 1995, the topic ‘terrorism and weapons of mass destruction’ became “hot”. When in the year 2000 the second Palestinian Intifada against the Israeli occupation saw an increase in so-called martyrdom operations, ‘suicide terrorism’ became the buzz word for researchers searching for grants. When, a year later, 9/11 happened, research on Al Qaeda and salafist jihadism became the order of the day. When the illegal US invasion of Iraq outraged many Muslims in the Middle East and in Western Muslim diasporas as well, radicalization processes in the form of mainly ‘homegrown terrorism’ became a major research priority. Later, after jihadists terrorists and supporters were captured and imprisoned in great numbers, the problem of de-radicalising them arose. As a consequence, in the last six years we have seen a growing number of studies on radicalisation to and de-radicalisation from terrorism.

In certain respects this is welcome since it is part of the somewhat underfunded search for root causes of terrorism. Peter Neumann noted that “Following the attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001…it suddenly became very difficult to talk about “the roots of terrorism” which some commentators claimed was an effort to excuse and justify the killing of innocent civilians….It was through the notion of radicalisation that a discussion…became possible again”.Footnote 1 However, it can be argued that this focus is too narrow and one-sided. The causes of terrorism should not just be sought on (i) the individual and group levels but also (ii) on the national and societal level and, last but not least, (iii) on the international and global system level. Much of the current discussion focuses too much on the individual and his or her radicalisation. In a way this is just as one-sided just as the old dictum that “every society has the crime it deserves”, was in erring on the opposite side.

The literature on (de-) radicalisation is young. In the attached bibliography the majority of the 175 titles are from the last decade, especially from the last six years. Only eleven titles are from the 1990s, four from the 1980s, none is from the 1970s and only one from the 1960s. Most of the literature focuses on Islamist radicalization. The majority of studies describe radicalisation processes with studies of de-radicalisation being fewer and of more recent origin. The literature selected here is, however, more illustrative than representative for the dynamic and fast-growing field of (de-) radicalisation studies. Part of the literature is “grey”, that is, it consists of reports that are not distributed in the form of academic monographs or published in social science journals, though many of them are available online.

Radicalisation literature approaches the subject of socialisation to violence from several angles. One school explores mainly how so-called ‘vulnerable’ individuals are socialized ideologically and psychologically by recruiters of terrorist organizations, ending up as killers or even suicide bombers. Another school stresses more how young individuals looking for adventure and a—in their eyes—worthy cause seek out terrorist organizations by themselves or act in line with them or on their behalf in search for personal fulfillment and acceptance by violent extremist organisations. Sometimes the radicalising individual is not becoming a “lone wolf” terrorist but radicalises as part of “a bunch of guys” who share common experiences (like feeling alienated in a diaspora situation). It is often assumed that radicalisation precedes recruitment but there have been cases where recruitment comes first and is followed by radicalisation.Footnote 2 When it comes to de-radicalisation we also find that in some cases dis-engagement from a terrorist organization antedates ideological distancing from the philosophy of terrorism.

Part of the literature focuses on the places where radicalisation is said to take place—prisons, mosques, universities, madrassas, diasporas or the internet. Another part stresses alleged triggers of radicalisation—discrimination, foreign occupation or counter-terrorist over-reaction. Yet other studies focus on the roles of ideology and religion, especially salafism and wahhabism. Surprisingly few studies compare radicalisation to terrorism to the joining of organized crime groups or religious sects.

There is also another imbalance in the discussion about radicalisation and terrorism. It can be argued that much of that literature is blind on one eye, neglecting the question whether many counter-terrorists have not also become radicalized during the eight years of the Bush-Cheney administration. The Obama administration, while starting its term full of good intentions, has not been able to change gears and de-escalate the struggle with Al-Qaeda as the Pentagon has continued most of the policies of the previous administration. It seems that the Republican Party but also a good part of the American media and the public as well as the Homeland security bureaucracy have to some extent been radicalised as well after 9/11. However, almost nothing on the way to de-radicalise some of the counter-terrorists can been found in the existing literature.

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Zimbardo, P. (2008). The Lucifer Effect. Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. New York, Random House.

Zimmermann, D. & William Rosenau, W. (Eds.) (2009). The Radicalization of Diasporas and Terrorism. Züricher Beiträge zur Sicherheitspolitik, Nr. 80. [http://www.humansecuritygateway.com/documents/ETH_RadicalizationDiasporasTerrorism.pdf]

Prime Journal Articles

Ashour, Omar (2008). ‘De-radicalization of Jihad? The Impact of Egyptian Islamist Revisionists on al-Qaeda. Perspectives on Terrorism, 2 (5) p. 11–14.

Atran, S. (2003) Genesis of Suicide Terrorism, Science 299 (5612, 7 March), pp. 1534–1539.

Awan, A.N. (2007) Virtual jihadist media: Function, legitimacy and radicalizing efficacy. European Journal of Cultural Studies 10 (3, August) pp. 389–408.

Boucek. C. (2007). Extremist re-education and rehabilitation in Saudi Arabia. Terrorism Monitor, 5 (16).

Brighton, S. (2007). British Muslims, multiculturalism and UK foreign policy: ‘integration’ and ‘cohesion’ in and beyond the state International Affairs 83 (1, January) pp. 1–17.

Bux, S. (2007). Muslim Youths, Islam and Violent Radicalization: Addressing Some Myths. The Police Journal 80 (3, September), pp. 267–278.

Choudhury, T. (2009). The Terrorism Act 2006: Discouraging Terrorism Extreme Speech and Democracy (February) pp. 461–486. [http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=4321]

Crenshaw, M. (1981). ‘The Causes of Terrorism’, Comparative Politics, 13, pp. 379–399.

Cronin, A.K. (2002/3) Behind the Curve: Globalization and International Terrorism International Security 27 (3), Winter, pp. 30–58.

Cronin, A. K. (2006) How Al-Qaeda Ends: The Decline and Demise of Terrorist Groups. International Security, 31 (1) pp. 32–39.

Cusack, J. & Taylor, M. (1993) Resurgence of a terrorist organization part 1: The UDA, a case study. Terrorism and Political Violence 5 (3, Autumn) pp. 1–27.

Dawson, L.L. (2010) The Study of New Religious Movements and the Radicalization of Home-Grown Terrorists: Opening a Dialogue. Terrorism and Political Violence. 22 (1) pp. 1–21.

DeMause, L. (2002). ‘The childhood origins of terrorism’. Journal of Psychohistory, 29 (4), pp. 340–348.

Dugan, L. & Huang, J.Y. (2008) (et al.,) Sudden desistance from terrorism: The Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia and the Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 1 (3, November) pp. 231–249.

Ferrero, M. (2005) Radicalisation as a Reaction to Failure: An Economic Model of Islamic Extremism. Public Choice, 122, pp. 199–220.

Friedland, N. & Merari, A. (1985). ‘The Psychological Impact of Terrorism: A Double-Edged Sword’. Political Psychology 6 (4, December), pp. 591–604.

Gibson, S.D. (2009) Future roles of the UK intelligence system. Review of International Studies 35, pp. 917–928.

Githens-Mazer, J. (2008) ‘Variations on a Theme: Radical Violent Islamism and European North African Radicalization’. PS: Political Science & Politics 41 (1), pp. 19–24.

Gunaratna, R. & Ali, M. B. (2009) ‘De-Radicalization Initiatives in Egypt: A Preliminary Insight’. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32 (4, April) pp. 277–291.

Hamm, M. S. (2009) ‘Prison Islam in the Age of Sacred Terror’. British Journal of Criminology, 49 (5, September), pp. 667–685.

Hafez, M.M. ( 2008). ‘Radicalization in the Persian Gulf: Assessing the potential of Islamist militancy in Saudi Arabia and Yemen’. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict (1, 1 March) pp. 6–24.

Hassan,M.H. (2007). ‘Singapore’s Muslim community-based initiatives against JI’. Perspectives on Terrorism, I (5).

Horgan, J. (2009) Deradicalization or disengagement? A process in need of clarity and a counterterrorism initiative in need of evaluation Revista de Psicología Social 24 (2, May), pp. 291–98.

Horgan, J. (2008). ‘From Profiles to Pathways and Roots to Routes: Perspectives from Psychology on Radicalization into Terrorism’. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618, (1) pp. 80–94.

Kirby, A. (2007) ‘The London Bombers as “Self-Starters”: A Case Study in Indigenous Radicalization and the Emergence of Autonomous Cliques’, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 30 (5, May), pp. 415–428.

Kohlmann, E. (2010). ‘A Beacon for Extremists: the Ansar al-Mujahideen Wen Forum’. CTC Sentinel 3 (2) February, p. 1–4. [http://ctc.usma.edu/sentinel/CTCSentinel-Vol3Iss2.pdf]

Hafez, M.M. (2008). ‘Radicalization in the Persian Gulf: Assessing the potential of Islamist militancy in Saudi Arabia and Yemen’. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways Toward Terrorism and Genocide, 1 (1), pp. 6–24.

Jackson, P.I. (2009) ‘Measuring Muslim Integration in Europe’. Democracy and Security 5 (3), pp. 223–248.

Jacques, K. & Taylor, P.J. (2009) ‘Female Terrorism: A Review’. Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (3), pp. 499–515.

Johnsen, G. D. & Boucek, C. (2008) ‘The Dilemma of the Yemeni Detainees at Guantanamo Bay’. CTC Sentinel 1 (12, November ) pp. 1–4. [http://ctc.usma.edu/sentinel/CTCSentinel-Vol1Iss12.pdf].

Kirby, A. (2007). ‘The London Bombers as ‘Self-Starters’. A Case Study in Indigenous Radicalisations and the Emergence of Autonomous Cliques’. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 30 (5), pp. 415–428.

Kruglanski, A.W. & Gelf, M & Gunaratna, R. (2010). ‘Detainee Deradicalization: A Challenge fo Psychological Science’. Observer [Association for Psycological Science], 23, (1, January).

Kruglanski, A.W. & Fishman, S. (2009). ‘Psychological Factors in Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Individual, Group, and organizational Levels of Analysis’. Social Issues and Policy Review, 3 (1), pp. 1–44.

Kruglanski, A. W. & Crenshaw, M. (et al.) (2007) ‘What Should This Fight Be Called? Metaphors of Counterterrorism and Their Implications’. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8 (3, December), pp. 97–133.

LaFree, G. & Erin Miller, E. (2008). ‘Desistance from terrorism: What can we learn from criminology?’, Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 1 (3), (November) pp. 203–230.

Laub, J.H. & Sampson, R.J. (2001) ‘Understanding Desistance from Crime’. Crime and Justice, 28, pp. 1–69.

Lauwers, G. (2003). ‘Discussing Autonomy and Independence for Corsica’. Contextualizing Secession (July), pp. 49–71

Lentini, P. (2008) ‘Understanding and combating terrorism: Definitions, origins and strategies.’ Australian Journal of Political Science, 43 (1, March) pp. 133–140.

Levine, S. (1999). ‘Youth in Terroristic Groups, Gangs, and Cults: The Allure, the Animus, and the Alienation’. Psychiatric Annals, 29 (6), pp. 342–349.

Loza, W. (2007). ‘Psychology of Extremism and Terrorism: A Middle-Eastern Perspective’. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12 (2), pp. 141–155.

McCauley, C. & Moskalenko, S. (2008) ‘Mechanisms of Political Radicalization: Pathways Toward Terrorism.’ Terrorism and Political Violence, 20 (3, July) pp. 415–433.

Menkhaus, K. (2007) ‘The crisis in Somalia: Tragedy in five acts’. African Affairs 424 (23 July), pp. 357–390.

Mesquita, de B., Ethan & Dickson, E. S. (2007). ‘The Propaganda of the Deed: Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Mobilization’. American Journal of Political Science 51, (2, April) pp. 364–381.

Moskalenko, S. & McCauley, C. (2009). ‘Measuring Political Mobilization: The Distinction Between Activism and Radicalism’. Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (2, April), pp. 239–260.

Munthe, T. (2005). ‘Terrorism: Not Who but Why?’ The RUSI Journal 150, (4, August) 2, pp. 8–12.

Ould Bah, A. S. (2010). ‘Reflections on Forms and Dimensions of Radicalization(s).’ Freedom from Fear (23, March) [http://www.freedomfromfearmagazine.org]

Pantucci, R. (2010). ‘A contest to democracy? How the UK has responded to the current terrorist threat’. Democratization, 17 (2) pp. 251–271.

Post, J.M. & Farhana, A. (2009) ‘The Psychology of Suicide Terrorism‘. Psychiatry: Interpersonal & Biological Processes 72 (1, Spring) pp. 13–31.

Post, J.M & Sheffer, G. (2007). ‘The Risk of Radicalization and Terrorism in U.S. Muslim Communities’. Brown Journal of World Affairs 13 (2) Spring/Summer, pp. 101–112. [http://www.humansecuritygateway.com/documents/BJWA_RiskRadicalizationTerrorismUSMuslimCommunities.pdf]

Ranstorp, M. (1996). ‘Terrorism in the Name of Religion’. Journal of International Affairs, 50 (Summer), pp. 41–52.

Rice, S.K. (2009) ‘Emotions and terrorism research: A case for a social-psychological agenda’. Journal of Criminal Justice 37 (3, May–June) pp. 248–255.

Ripley, A. (13 March 2008) ‘Reverse Radicalism.’ TIME. [http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1720049_1720050_1722062,00.html]

Sageman, M. & Hoffman, B. (2008). ‘Does Osama Still Call the Shots? Debating the Containment of al-Qaeda’s Leadership.’ Foreign Affairs (July/August).

Silke, A. (2008) Holy Warriors: Exploring the Psychological Processes of Jihadi Radicalization European Journal of Criminology, 5 (1, January), pp. 99–123.

Speckhard, A. & Akhmedova, K. (2006). ‘The New Chechen Jihad: Militant Wahhabism as a Radical Movement and a Source of Suicide Terrorism in Post-War Chechen Society’. Democracy and Security, 2, (1, January–June) pp. 103–155.

Sprinzak, E. (1991). ‘The Process of Delegitimization: Towards a Linkage Theory of Political Terrorism.’ Terrorism and Political Violence, 3, (1) pp. 50–68.

Sprinzak, E. (1995) ‘Right-wing terrorism in a comparative perspective: The case of split delegitimization’. Terrorism and Political Violence 7 (1, Spring) pp. 17–43.

Stankov, L & Saucier, G & Knežević, G. (2010). ‘Militant Extremist Mind-Set: Proviolence, Vile World, and Divine Power’. Psychological Assessment 22 (1, March), pp. 70–86.

Stemmann, J.J.E. (2006) ‘Middle East Salafism’s influence and the radicalization of Muslim communities in Europe’. MERIDA: Middle East Review of International Affairs 10 (3, September) Article 1 [http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2006/issue3/Escobar.pdf]

Stern, J. (2010). ‘Mind of Martyr: How to Deradicalize Islamist Extremists’. [http://www.ihavenet.com/How-to-Deradicalize-Islamist-Extremists-Terrorists.html]

Storm, L. (2009). ‘The persistence of authoritarianism as a source of radicalization in North Africa’. International Affairs 85 (5, September) pp. 997–1013.

Stracke, N. (2007). ‘Arab prisons: A place for dialogue and reform’. Perspectives on Terrorism, I (4).

Taylor, M. & Horgan, J. (2006). ‘A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Psychological Process in the Development of the Terrorist’. Terrorism and Political Violence, 18, (5 ) pp. 585–601.

Tucker, R.C. (1967) ‘The Deradicalization of Marxist Movement’. American Political Science Review 61 (2 June) pp. 343–358.

Useem, B. & Clayton, O. (2009) ‘Radicalization of U.S. prisoners’. Criminology & Public Policy 8, ( 3, August ) pp. 561–592.

Victoroff, J. (2005) ‘The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches’ Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49, (1, February) pp. 3–42.

Vidino, L. (2009) ‘Homegrown Jihadist Terrorism in the United States: A New and Occasional Phenomenon?’ Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32 (1, January) pp. 1–17.

Von Hippel, K. (2008) ‘A Counterradicalization Strategy for a New U.S. Administration.’ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618 (1, July), pp. 182–196.

Weine, (et al.) (2009) ‘Community and family approaches to combating the radicalization and recruitment of Somali-American youth and young adults: A psychosocial perspective.’ Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways Toward Terrorism and Genocide. 2 (3), pp. 81–200

Weinberg, L. & Perlinger, A. (2010). ‘How Terrorist Groups End.’ CTC Sentinel 3 (2, February) pp. 16–17. [http://ctc.usma.edu/sentinel/CTCSentinel-Vol3Iss2.pdf]

Wilner, A.S. & Dubouloz, C-J. (2010). ‘Homegrown terrorism and transformative learning: an interdisciplinary approach to understanding radicalization.’ Global Change, Peace & Security (formerly Pacifica Review: Peace, Security & Global Change), 22 (1), pp. 33–51.

About the Compilers: Eric Priceis a Professional Information Specialist and former librarian of the International Atomic Energy Agency; Alex P. Schmidis Director of the Terrorism Research Initiative and Editor of ‘Perspectives on Terrorism’ where this bibliography was first published (see:www.terrorismanalysts.com).