Abstract
Considering the organization’s ethical context as a framework to investigate workplace phenomena, this field study of military reserve personnel examines the relationships among perceptions of psychosocial group variables, such as cohesiveness, helping behavior and peer leadership, employee job attitudes, and the likelihood of individuals’ withholding on-the-job effort, a form of organizational misbehavior. Hypotheses were tested with a sample of 290 individuals using structural equation modeling, and support for negative relationships between perceptions of positive group context and withholding effort by individual employees was found. In addition, individual effort-performance expectancy and individual job satisfaction were negatively related to withholding effort. The findings provide evidence that individual perceptions of positive group context play a key role in the presence of misbehavior at work. The results indicate that positive group context might be an important element of ethical climate that should be managed to temper occurrence of such adverse work behavior.
Article PDF
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Ajzen I. The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 1991; 50:179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Ajzen I., Fishbein M. Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980
Albanese R., Van Fleet D. D. Rational Behavior in Groups: The Free-Riding Tendency. Academy of Management Review. 1985;10:244–255. doi:10.2307/257966
Anderson J. C., Gerbing D. W. Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach. Psychological Bulletin 1988;103:411–423. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
Arbuckle J. L., Wothke W. AMOS 4.0 User’s Guide. Chicago: SmallWaters Corporation, 1999
Armitage C. J., Christian J. From Attitudes to Behaviour: Basic and Applied Research on the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social 2003; 22:187–195. doi:10.1007/s12144-003-1015-5
Bagozzi R. P., Yi Y. On the Evaluation of Structural Equation Models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 1988; 16:74–94
Bandura A. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977
Bennett N., Naumann S. E. Withholding Effort at Work: Understanding and Preventing Shirking, Job Neglect, Social Loafing and Free Riding. In: R. E. Kidwell, Jr. and C. L. Martin (eds), Managing Organizational Deviance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005, pp. 113–126
Blau G. Operationalizing Direction and Level of Effort and Testing Their Relationships to Individual Job Performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 1993;55:152–170. doi:10.1006/obhd.1993.1028
Burton J. P., Mitchell T. R., Lee T. W. The Role of Self-Esteem and Social Influences in Aggressive Reactions to Interactional Injustice. Journal of Business and Psychology 2005; 20:131–170. doi:10.1007/s10869-005-6995-8
Byrne Z. S., Stoner J., Thompson K. R., Hochwarter W. The Interactive Effects of Conscientiousness, Work Effort, and Psychological Climate on Job Performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior 2005; 66:326–338. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.08.005
Cappelli P., Sherer P. D. The Missing Role of Context in OB: The Need for a Meso-Level Approach. In: B. M. Staw, L. L. Cummings (Eds.) Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 13. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1991, pp. 55–110
Chalykoff J., Kochan T. A. Computer-Aided Monitoring: Its Influence on Employee Job Satisfaction and Turnover. Personnel Psychology 1989;42:807–834. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1989.tb00676.x
Chang M. K., Predicting Unethical Behavior: A Comparison of the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics 1998;17:1825–1834. doi:10.1023/A:1005721401993
Cohen S. G., Bailey D. E. What Makes Teams Work: Group Effectiveness Research from the Shop Floor to the Executive Suite. Journal of Management 1997;23:239–290. doi:10.1177/014920639702300303
Dobbins G. H., Zaccaro S. J. The Effects of Group Cohesion and Leader Behavior on Subordinate Satisfaction. Group & Organization Studies 1986;11:203–219. doi:10.1177/105960118601100305
Dunn J., Schweitzer M. E. Why Good Employees Make Unethical Decisions: The Role of Reward Systems, Organizational Culture, and Managerial Oversight. In: R. E. Kidwell Jr., C. L. Martin (eds), Managing Organizational Deviance (pp. 39–60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005
Faircloth J. B., Capella L. M., Alford B. L. The Effect of Brand Attitude and Brand Image on Brand Equity. Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice 2001;9:61–75
Fornell C., Larcker D. F. Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobserved Variables and Measurement Error. Journal of Marketing Research 1981;18:39–50. doi:10.2307/3151312
Gardner D. G., Dunham R. B., Cummings L. L., Pierce J. L. Focus of Attention at Work: Construct Definition and Empirical Validation. Journal of Occupational Psychology 1989;62:61–77
George G. M., Jones G. R.: Organizational Spontaneity in Context. Human Performance 1997;10:153–170. doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1002_6
Gladstein D.: Groups in Context: A Model of Task Group Effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly 1984;29:499–517. doi:10.2307/2392936
Glomb T. M., Liao H.: Interpersonal Aggression in Work Groups: Social Influence, Reciprocal, and Individual Effects. Academy of Management Journal 2003;46:486–496
Gully S. M., Devine D. S., Whitney D. J. A Meta-Analysis of Cohesion and Performance: Effects of Level of Analysis and Task Interdependence. Small Group Research 1995;26:497–520. doi:10.1177/1046496495264003
Hackman J. R.: Group Influences on Individuals. In: M. D. Dunnette, L. M. Hough (eds), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Vol. 3 (pp. 199–267). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992
Hair J. F., Anderson R. E., Tatham R. L., Black W. C. Multivariate Data Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998
Homans G. C. The Human Group. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1950
Hu L. T., Bentler P. M.: Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling 1999;6:1–55
Iaffaldano M. T., Muchinsky P. M. Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin 1985;97:251–273. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.251
Kellett J. B., Humphrey R. H., Sleeth R. G. Empathy and the Emergence of Task and Relations Leaders. Leadership Quarterly 2006;17:146–162. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.12.003
Kemery E. R., Bedeian A. G., Zacur S. R.: Expectancy-Based Job Cognitions and Job Affect as Predictors of Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1996;26:635–651. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb02735.x
Kidwell R. E. Jr., Bennett N.: Employee Propensity to Withhold Effort: A Conceptual Model to Intersect Three Avenues of Research. Academy of Management Review 1993;18:429–456. doi:10.2307/258904
Kidwell R. E. Jr., Martin C. L. Managing Organizational Deviance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005
Kidwell R. E. Jr., Mossholder K. M., Bennett N.: 1997, Cohesiveness and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Multilevel Analysis Using Work Groups and Individuals, Journal of Management 23, 775–793. doi:10.1177/014920639702300605
Kidwell R. E. Jr., Robie C. Withholding Effort in Organizations: Toward Development and Validation of a Measure. Journal of Business and Psychology 2003; 17: 537–561. doi:10.1023/A:1023456319134
Latané B.: Psychology of Social Impact. American Psychologist 1981;36:343–356. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.343
Latané B., Williams K., Harkins S.: Many Hands Make Light the Work: The Causes and Consequences of Social Loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1979;37:822–832. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.6.822
Leck, J. D. and D. M. Saunders: 1992, ‹Hirschman’s Loyalty: Attitude or Behavior?’, Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 5, 219–230.
Liden R. C., Wayne S. J., Jaworski R. A., Bennett N.: Social Loafing: A Field Investigation. Journal of Management 2004;30:285–304. doi:10.1016/j.jm.2003.02.002
Martinko, M. and K. Zellars: 1998, ‹Toward a Theory of Workplace Violence: A Cognitive Appraisal Perspective’, in R. W. Griffin, A. O’Leary-Kelly and J. M. Collins (eds.), Dysfunctional Behavior in Organizations: Violent and Deviant Behavior (JAI Press, Stamford, CT), Vol. 23, Part A, pp. 1–42
Ng, K. Y. and L. Van Dyne: 2005, ‹Antecedents and Performance Consequences of Helping Behavior in Groups, a Multi-Level Analysis’, Group & Organization Management 30, 514–540. doi:10.1177/1059601104269107
O’Leary-Kelly A. M., Griffin R. W., Glew D. J.: Organization Motivated Aggression: A Research Framework. Academy of Management Review 1996;21:225–253. doi:10.2307/258635
Organ D. W., Ryan K.: A Meta-Analytic Review of Attitudinal and Dispositional Predictors of Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Personnel Psychology 1995;48:775–802. doi:10.1111/j.1744–6570.1995.tb01781.x
Petty M. M., McGee G. W., Cavender J. W.: A Meta-Analysis of the Relationships Between Individual Job Satisfaction and Individual Job Performance. Academy of Management Review 1984;9:712–721. doi:10.2307/258493
Piercy N. F., Cravens D. W., Lane N., Vorhies D. W.: Driving Organizational Citizenship Behaviors and Salesperson In-Role Behavior Performance: The Role of Management Control and Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 2006;34:244–262. doi:10.1177/0092070305280532
Podsakoff P. M., MacKenzie S. B., Lee J., Podsakoff N. P.: Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology 2003;88:879–903 doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Podsakoff P. M., MacKenzie S. B., Paine J. B., Bachrach D. J.: Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research. Journal of Management 2000;26:513–563. doi:10.1177/014920630002600307
Porter L. W., Lawler E. E.: Managerial Attitudes, Performance. Homewood, IL: Dorsey, 1968
Randall D. M., Fernandes M.: The Social Desirability Response Bias in Ethics Research. Journal of Business Ethics 1991;10:805–817. doi:10.1007/BF00383696
Robinson S. L., O’Leary-Kelly A.: Monkey See, Monkey do: The Influence of Work Groups on the Antisocial Behavior of Employees, Academy of Management Journal 1998;41:658–672. doi:10.2307/256963
Shepperd J. A., Taylor K. M.: Social Loafing and Expectancy-Value Theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1999;25:1147–1158. doi:10.1177/01461672992512008
Sims H. P., Szilagyi A. D., McKemey D. R.: Antecedents of Work-Related Expectancies. Academy of Management Journal 1976;19:547–559. doi:10.2307/255790
Smith C. A., Organ D. W., Near J. P.: Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Its Nature and Antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology 1983;68:653–663. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.68.4.653
Steenkamp J. B., van Trijp H.: The Use of LISREL in Validating Marketing Constructs. International Journal of Research in Marketing 1991;8:283–299. doi:10.1016/0167-8116(91)90027-5
Taylor J. C., Bowers D. G.: Survey of Organizations: A Machine Scored Standardized Questionnaire Instrument. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1972
Treviño L. K.: Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: A Person-Situation Interaction Model. Academy of Management Review 1986;11:601–617. doi:10.2307/258313
Treviño L. K., Brown M. E. The Role of Leaders in Influencing Unethical Behavior in the Workplace. In: R. E. Kidwell Jr., C. L. Martin (eds), Managing Organizational Deviance (pp. 69–87). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005
Treviño L. K., Butterfield K. B., McCabe D. L. The Ethical Context in Organizations: Influences on Employee Attitudes and Behaviors. Business Ethics Quarterly 1998;8:447–476
Treviño, L. K. and K. A. Nelson: 2004, Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk About How To Do It Right, 3rd Edition (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY)
Treviño L. K., Weaver G. R. Organizational Justice and Ethics Program Follow-Through: Influences on Employees’ Harmful and Helpful Behavior. Business Ethics Quarterly 2001;11:651–671
Tsui A., S. Ashford, L. St. Claire, K. Xin: 1995, Dealing with Discrepant Expectations: Response Strategies and Managerial Effectiveness, Academy of Management Journal 38, 1515–1543
Tziner A., Vardi Y.: Effects of Command Style and Group Cohesiveness on the Performance Effectiveness of Self-Selected Tank Crews. Journal of Applied Psychology 1982;67:769–775.
Vardi Y., Weitz E. Misbehavior in Organizations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004
Victor B., Cullen J. B.: A Theory and Measure of Ethical Climate in Organizations. Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy 1987;9:51–71
Victor B., Cullen J. B.: The Organizational Bases of Ethical Work Climates. Administrative Science Quarterly 1988;33:101–125
Witte E. H.: Social Influence: A Discussion and Integration of Recent Models into a General Group Situation Theory. European Journal of Social Psychology 1990;20:3–27
Yeo G. B., Neal A.: A Multilevel Analysis of Effort, Practice and Performance: Effects of Ability, Conscientiousness and Goal Orientation. Journal of Applied Psychology 2004;89:231–247
Zerbe W. J., Paulhus D. Socially Desirable Responding in Organizational Behavior: A Reconception. Academy of Management Review, 1987;12:250–264
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Roland E. Kidwell (PhD, Louisiana State University) is an associate professor in the Management and Marketing Department in the College of Business at the University of Wyoming. His major research and teaching interests focus on new ventures and economic development, family business, social entrepreneurship, business ethics, and workplace deviance. His research has been published in academic journals such as the Academy of Management Review, Journal of Management, Journal of Business Venturing, International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, Journal of Accounting and Public Policy and Journal of Business Ethics. He is co-editor of the book, Managing Organizational Deviance (Sage, 2005).
Sean R. Valentine (DBA, Louisiana Tech University) is Professor of Management in the Department of Management, College of Business and Public Administration at the University of North Dakota. His research and teaching interests include business ethics, human resource management, and organizational culture. His work has appeared in journals such as Human Relations, Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, Journal of Business Research, Behavioral Research in Accounting and Journal of Business Ethics.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kidwell, R.E., Valentine, S.R. Positive Group Context, Work Attitudes, and Organizational Misbehavior: The Case of Withholding Job Effort. J Bus Ethics 86, 15–28 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9790-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9790-4