Introduction

Wood charcoal analyses of material from archaeological sites are widely used to describe the local vegetation and environmental setting in the past in relation to the human activities that shaped them. In Mediterranean Spain, although such studies are quite abundant in prehistoric, Iron Age and Roman sites (Allué 2002; Badal 2002; Badal and Carrión 2001; Badal et al. 1994; Carrión 2005; García Martínez et al. 2008; Rodríguez-Ariza 1996; Ros MaT 1992, among others), there is much less information for later historical periods (De Haro 2000, 2001; Grau Almero 2002; Grau Almero and de Haro 2004; Ruiz Montes et al. 2010). For the latter, the environmental history of surrounding areas, subsistence strategies practised at particular sites and the management of private or communal woodland is usually discussed using information provided by written sources such as historical texts, agronomic writings, archives, etc. Archaeological projects that have incorporated wood charcoal studies have had the opportunity to combine empirical on-site vegetation data with relevant historic literature. The interpretation of the archaeological evidence, the understanding of the historical circumstances, and the reading of the environmental history have thus been mutually benefited (Butzer 2005; Durand 1995, 2002; Durand et al. 1990).

The Ifach Project is an archaeological research programme of Diputación Provincial de Alicante (Alicante provincial government). It was initiated in 2005 by the Museo Arqueológico de Alicante (MARQ) in close collaboration with Ajuntament de Calp and Conselleria de Territori i Habitatge de la Generalitat Valenciana. The project investigated the settlement of Pobla d’Ifach (hereafter referred to as Pobla), founded on the slopes of the Rock of Ifach, Calp, Alicante, Spain and occupied towards the end of the 13th century a.d. The foundation of Pobla in 1297 needs to be seen within the historical context of the intensification of repopulation of the territories of the Crown of Aragon coinciding with the end of the last Muslim resistance in the Alicante mountains in 1276 (Menéndez Fueyo 2009 in press; Menéndez Fueyo et al. 2007).

The project is multidisciplinary and involves a large team of researchers whose aim is to build a body of primary data with which to reconstruct life at the site. Excavations have shown the structure, characteristics and history of this short-lived settlement, which served mainly as a port and a vantage point from 1297 to 1359. The study of the palaeoenvironmental remains, in particular wood charcoal, provides information about the local vegetation and the environmental characteristics in the catchment area of the settlement during its occupation. Historical texts with references to this period provide the background against which we discuss aspects of land use and woodland and timber management during the short life of Pobla.

Biogeographical setting

The Rock of Ifach is located on the southeastern coast of Mediterranean Iberia, Spain (38º 38′3″N, 0º 4′35″W), forming an extension of the Baetic Cordillera. Composed of limestone, it is 332 m high and 1 km long and is connected to the mainland by a detrital isthmus near the village of Calp. Ifach is a prominent feature in the landscape, accentuated by the presence of the nearby depression of Saladar of Calp (Faus Prieto 1987; Riquelme Piloña and Blázquez Morilla 2001) (Fig. 1). This formed a lagoon adjacent to the Rock of Ifach which was filled by natural processes, and used at least since Roman times for salt production (Las Salinas de Calp), supplying the nearby vicus of Baños de la Reina (Abascal et al. 2007).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Geographical context of Pobla d’Ifach. a, Crown of Aragοn boundaries; b, location of Ifach in relation to the Condado de Cocentaina; c, aerial view of the Rock of Ifach; d, engraving by A. Laborde (1806–1829) showing the Rock of Ifach and the settlement

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The area around Calp is within the dry thermomediterranean bioclimatic zone, with a mean annual temperature of around 18°C and precipitation of approximately 400 mm (Pérez Cuevas 1994). Mediterranean seasonality is a characteristic of the area with rains concentrated in autumn and practically absent during the summer.

The vegetation of the area is the result of the prevalent climatic conditions and millennia of human activity. The vegetation on the Rock of Ifach belongs to the dry thermomediterranean mastic tree series Querco cocciferae-Pistacieto lentisci sigmentum (Costa 1986, pp. 163–164). At present the dominant vegetation is marlstone adapted matorral (an evergreen bush community equivalent to maquis and garrigue) with Pistacia lentiscus, Rosmarinus officinalis, Olea europaea, Rhamnus alaternus, Chamaerops humilis, Cistus albidus, Osyris quadripartita, Ephedra fragilis, Erica multiflora, Lavandula dentata amongst others (Cantó et al. 1986). Pinus halepensis and Ceratonia siliqua are the only trees which grow on the rock. The morphology of the isolated P. halepensis (Aleppo pine) is affected by and adapted to the direction of the prevailing coastal winds that constantly blow (Fig. 2). Juniperus phoenicea, J. oxycedrus and Rhamnus lycioides are adapted to the rock crevices, where there is little soil development (Cantó et al. 1986). Lagoons in the area have been considerably reduced but still contain a great variety of halophytes such as Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Atriplex halimus, Halimione portulacoides, Sarcocornia fruticosa and Suaeda maritima (Cantó et al. 1986), which grow on the saline soils that are inundated for a large part of the year. The Rock of Ifach was declared a nature reserve in 1987, with its numerous endemic or rare plants such as Silene hifacensis, Teucrium hifacense, Scabiosa saxatilis, Hippocrepis valentina and sea birds, Falco eleonorae, Phalacrocorax aristotelis and Sturnus vulgaris (Costa 1986; Crespo Villalba 2000).

Fig. 2
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Current vegetation on the Rock of Ifach. The effect of the strong winds that constantly blow in the area may be seen in the twisted pine trunks. The image illustrates the unsuitability of the local pines as building material

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The historical and archaeological background of the site

The foundation of Pobla in 1297 was part of the Christian colonization of the Sharq al-Andalus by the Crown of Aragon (1164–1707). Its first known written mention can be found in the order to build the settlement by Pedro III of Aragon (1276–1285) on April 8th 1282, while 2 days later there was another royal concession ordering the division and allocation of houses, lots and spaces (Torró i Abad and Segura Martí 1991; Torró i Abad 1988–1989; Ivars Pérez 1987). However this order was not executed until the summer of 1297 when Admiral Roger de Llúria, the possessor of a truly noble status in the territories of Alicante, Alcoy, Cocentaina, towns and villages in Marina Alta and Baja, received the Condado de Cocentaina (Fig. 1b) and royal privilege of Jaime II of Aragon (1291–1327), to repopulate Ifach and to build towers and fortresses for its defence.

During the seven decades that Pobla was in use, it held the difficult position of a maritime boundary, along with uninterrupted economic activity as well as military and political functions. The settlement was destroyed in the summer of 1359 by the Castilian-Genoese fleet during the war between the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon (1356–1361) (Cabezuelo Pliego 1990; Campón Gonzalvo 1990–1991; Menéndez Fueyo 2008; Menéndez Fueyo et al. 2007). The administrative documents of the Conde de Denia indicate that some rebuilding took place during subsequent years, but without much success and in 1362 the settlement was abandoned. Finally, at the beginning of the fifteenth century an effort was made to repopulate Ifach during the reign of Alfonso V the Magnanimous (1416–1458), for the protection of this part of the coast by the Crown of Aragon.

Systematic excavations at Pobla since 2005 have revealed the stratigraphic sequence of the medieval settlement and its main urban characteristics, allowing a close correlation between historical and archaeological data. The history and evolution of the settlement is divided into four main phases (I–IV) which are dated with an accuracy of between 20 and 30 years by means of coins from the relevant layers (Table 1).

Table 1 The chronological and cultural sequence of Pobla d’Ifach
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Phases I and IIa belong to a single chronological horizon dated to 1258–1270–1291. An ante quem of between 1258 and 1270 is provided by several Jaime I Diners minted in Barcelona, including one in 1270. The coinage of Jaime I remained in circulation after his death until at least 1291 when Jaime II ordered his first coins (Botet Siso 1976, p. 87). Therefore, Phase I corresponds with construction of the settlement, while the overlying Phase IIa is directly related to its initial occupation.

Phase IIb points to continual use probably also during the reign of Alfonso IV the Kind (1328–1335). During the first half of the 14th century, Pobla had a wall of over 800 linear feet with seven complete towers in the northern sector and another two located in the west. A central feature of the settlement was the Gothic church known as Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles. Phase IIb ends with a destruction level. Coins dated to the reign of Pedro IV (1336–1387) may associate this with the partial destruction and subsequent abandonment of the settlement after the attack by the Castilian-Genoese fleet in 1359 (Menéndez Fueyo 2009).

Phase III points to occupation during the early 15th century until the reign of Alfonso V the Magnanimous (1416–1458). From the foundation letter of the a.d. 1418 settlement, we know that Pobla had a public building, a granary, an oven probably used communally, a tavern and buildings used for the storage of products to leave via the nearby piers, as well as to accommodate travellers who had to spend the night.

Phase IV consists of an agricultural layer on top of the remains of the settlement, pointing to use of the land for farming during its ownership by the Paris family in the early 20th century.

Materials and methods

Wood charcoal analysis

Wood charcoal remains, depending on the archaeological context from which they derive, may be associated either with the use of wood for fuel or with the use of certain timber taxa for building (for references see Vernet 1992; Thiébault 2002; Dufraisse 2006; Fiorentino and Magri 2008). At Pobla, firewood remains have been found scattered in the fills of the occupation and abandonment layers, while timber remains were concentrated in a fire layer dated to the end of Phase IIa (Table 1). Wood charcoal analysis of both firewood and construction timber provides ecological and archaeobotanical information relating to the medieval environment of the area and its management.

Wood charcoal remains have been systematically recovered from 20 l sediment samples from successive occupation layers, a fire layer, abandonment layers and the watering trough (Table 1). The archaeobotanical remains were separated from the sediment by means of water flotation. The wood charcoal samples from each of the archaeological phases/contexts were grouped together and constitute their assemblages.

For the botanical identification of wood charcoal we used a Nikon Optiphot 100 dark/bright field incident light microscope with magnification of ×50 up to ×500. The archaeological specimens were identified with the aid of a specialized plant anatomy bibliography (Jacquiot 1955; Jacquiot et al. 1973; Schweingruber 1990) and with reference to the collection of modern charred woods at the Laboratory of the Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Valencia, Spain. The frequency of identified wood charcoal taxa was assessed as percentages of fragment counts (Chabal 1988; Chabal et al. 1999).

Detailed observation and photography of micro-organisms and minerals were carried out using a Hitachi S-4100 Field Emission SEM and EMIP 3.0 (Electron Microscope Image Processing) software at the S·C.S·I.E. (Servicio Central de Soporte a la Investigación Experimental) electron microscopy laboratory at the University of Valencia, Spain.

Dendrological analysis

The wood charcoal remains from the destruction layer, apart from botanical identification, were also subjected to dendrological examination to provide additional ethnobotanical, ecological and taphonomic information (Marguerie and Hunot 2007). Dendrology is based on the fact that the growth rate of plants can be altered by internal agents as well as external influences such as human exploitation, animal grazing, or climatic conditions (Munaut 1988; Schweingruber 1996). These are reflected in the width of the rings and can provide information on climatic events or human activities.

The following dendrological parameters were observed under low magnification using a Nikon SMZ-10 stereoscope. Tree-ring curvature, which may indicate the part of the trunk from which the sample originated (Marguerie and Hunot 2007) and tree-ring width, which is a direct measure of the radial growth of the plant (Marguerie and Hunot 2007) were observed. Also recorded was the presence of pith and/or bark, the presence of anatomical alterations such as compression wood, radial cracks and vitrification of the tissue (Kaennel and Schweingruber 1995; Marguerie 1992; Théry-Parisot 2001), the presence of fungi or insects which attack wood (Badal and Atienza 2007; Moskal-del Hoyo et al. 2010; Théry-Parisot 2001), and any evidence of wood-working (Carrión and Rosser 2010).

Results

The identified plants

The firewood remains which were studied originated from the occupation layers of Phases IIa and IIb, the fire level of Phase IIa, the watering trough and the abandonment layers of Phases IIb and III (Table 1; Fig. 3). Table 2 shows the qualitative and quantitative results for each assemblage. Wood charcoal analysis produced a rich floral list that includes a large number of angiosperms and various gymnosperms among which were three species of pine. The identified taxa may be either wild or cultivated, while within each group there were local taxa as well as those with an “exotic” origin, either from other parts of the Iberian peninsula or more distant regions.

Fig. 3
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The excavated area from where the wood charcoal samples originate

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Table 2 Presence and frequency of the plant taxa identified at Pobla d’Ifach by phase and context
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Among the wild taxa, all the identified angiosperms together with Ephedra, Juniperus and Pinus halepensis are native in the study area and they all form part of the warm coastal vegetation growing in matorral or open woodland. Pinus nigra and P. sylvestris are common on the Mediterranean mountains above 800 m a.s.l. (Romo 1997), and therefore their presence at Ifach is due to transport. Concerning P. pinaster, although there is no doubt that it is native to the Iberian peninsula (Carrión García et al. 2000; Figueiral 1995; Figueiral and Terral 2002) its distribution along the Mediterranean coastal area is not clearly delimited. It is possible that it grew in small groves in the hinterland of Calp on decalcified and siliceous substrates.

Wild Olea, Ficus carica and Vitis are autochthonous in the coastal areas of Calp, yet evidence for their cultivation is known from protohistoric times onwards (Badal et al. 1994; Pérez et al. 2007). Prunus persica and/or P. armeniaca, which originated in Asia, and P. amygdalus might be present at the site given that a wide variety of fleshy fruits such as plums, cherries, peaches etc. were grown in medieval times (Peña-Chocarro and Zapata Peña 2005). Ceratonia siliqua is also a species introduced to the Iberian peninsula, although it has been fully adapted to the coastal area of Calp through cultivation. Together with Olea, it is considered an indicator of thermomediterranean bioclimatic conditions.

Firewood collection

Firewood remains have been analyzed from the occupation layers of Phases IIa and IIb, the watering trough and the abandonment layers of Phases IIb and III (Table 2; Fig. 4). The results from the first three are very similar. Pinus halepensis is the dominant taxon (50–66%) followed in much lower percentages by Pistacia lentiscus and a rich assemblage of matorral and maquis taxa, including taxa of the Fabaceae and Lamiaceae, Cistus, Erica, Juniperus, Arbutus unedo, Rhamnus, amongst others. Among the Lamiaceae, we have identified Rosmarinus while Lavandula dentata, a plant typical of the warmest littoral areas, may also be present. Wetland taxa are poorly represented by Populus/Salix and Tamarix. Wood charcoal remains of cultivated trees such as Ceratonia siliqua, Ficus carica, Olea europaea and Prunus amygdalus/persica/armeniaca are present in low percentages. Pinus nigra/sylvestris is present but infrequent probably because these mountain trees were reserved for building timber (see below). Their remains in the occupation layers are due either to the use for fuel of wood-working remains and timber from destroyed structures, or in the case of Phase IIa to the intrusion of wood charcoal from the overlying burnt destruction layer.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Frequency of the taxa or vegetational formations used for firewood in occupation and abandonment Phases at Pobla d’Ifach. The frequency of Pinus halepensis, matorral and mountain conifers in each phase is based on the absolute and relative frequencies of the taxa as these are presented in Table 2. Matorral includes Arbutus, Cistus, Cistaceae, Ephedra, Erica, Juniperus, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia sp., Quercus sp. evergreen type, Rhamnus/Phillyrea and Rosmarinus officinalis. Pinus nigra/sylvestris and P. pinaster are grouped as mountain conifers

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The similarity of the assemblages from the Phase IIb occupation layer and the watering trough indicates their deposition at the same time, in agreement with the stratigraphy. Furthermore, common characteristics of the Phase IIa and IIb occupation layers indicate that the patterns of resource management established in the early phases of the settlement continued for some time after its partial destruction in 1359. Pinus halepensis was the main firewood source while the use of other matorral, wetland and cultivated plants was rare. These results point to organized firewood supply from surrounding P. halepensis woodlands.

The results from the abandonment layers differ from those discussed above in that P. halepensis is co-dominant with Pistacia lentiscus while the frequency of other matorral plants, especially from the Fabaceae and Lamiaceae, increases considerably. In this context a new taxon, Ephedra sp., is present and abundant. Pinus nigra/sylvestris is relatively abundant probably because timber from destroyed structures was used for firewood. Remains of cultivated trees are scarce, including Prunus amygdalus/persica/armeniaca, while wetland taxa were not found.

On the basis of the presence/frequency of the wild autochthonous taxa identified at Pobla we may suggest that Pinus halepensis open woodland with a dense understorey would have grown in the area. At present the distribution of such vegetation is mainly confined to the hilly flanks of the coast, while on the Rock the main vegetation cover is a dense matorral with scattered pines (Cantó et al. 1986; Pérez Badía 1997 ). This same distribution seems probable during the time that Pobla was settled. In all the main occupation phases (IIa and b) when the settlement controlled provisioning networks with the coast, the use of P. halepensis, probably transported from there, was predominant in contrast to the abandonment phases. In this case matorral plants and Pistacia lentiscus became more important, probably indicating the management of local resources at a time when the population had begun to abandon the settlement, which had lost its importance in maritime and administrative networks.

The characteristics of vegetation in the area may also be assessed by the scarcity of evergreen oaks. The evidence from nearby coastal sites indicates that matorral and open pine woodland would probably have been established along the coastal zone already by the Bronze Age (Badal 2009). Evergreen oak dominated woodland would not grow in the area and only scattered trees would form part of the matorral or the pine understorey. This characteristic of the vegetation is evident in the Iberian period settlement (4th–2nd century b.c.) at Ifach (Carrión Marco, unpublished), indicating that the absence of these thermophilous taxa and the expansion of matorral with pines was mainly a result of the dry conditions rather than loss of woodland. Moreover, when the botanist Cavanilles visited the rock in the 18th century, he described the vegetation cover as a Pistacia and Olea matorral with pines being the only trees (Cavanilles 1797, p. 225). Both the Iberian period and the 18th century a.d. vegetation characteristics are very similar to those identified by the wood charcoal analysis from the abandonment layers, thus supporting our suggestion that the matorral was the natural vegetation on the rock and not the result of destruction of an earlier and denser pine woodland.

The building timber

Despite the large number of taxa used for firewood at Pobla, only a few seem to have been used for timber: Arbutus unedo, Pinus halepensis, P. nigra/sylvestris, P. cf. pinaster and Quercus sp. evergreen (Table 2). Pinus halepensis and P. nigra/sylvestris constitute nearly 90% of the remains from the fire layer. These may have been selected for construction on the basis of the qualities of their wood and the length of their straight trunks. The wood of P. halepensis is dense, easy to work (mainly the heartwood) and more resistant to fungal attack than that of other pines (Sell and Kropf 1990). The wood of mountain pines is dense and very suitable for timber, although it is not very resistant to rot. Table 3 shows the main characteristics of the wood of different pine species.

Table 3 Physical characteristics of the wood of the pine species identified at Pobla d’Ifach after Soler (2001) and Jacamon (1992)
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The wood charcoal from the fire layer was very fragmented and consequently the morphology of the timbers was difficult to assess. The curvature of the growth rings allows an estimation of the diameter of the trunk or at least the part of it from where the sample came (Marguerie and Hunot 2007). Most fragments of P. nigra/sylvestris had weakly curved rings (Fig. 5a), indicating that they came from the outermost part of the trunk. It is difficult to estimate the diameter of the timber used, given the small size of the wood charcoal fragments. However, the curvature of the rings suggests that they were trunks or branches of more than 10–15 cm diameter. Pinus halepensis wood charcoal fragments had both weakly and strongly curved rings, indicating the use of the whole diameter of the trunk or big branches (Fig. 5a).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Wood anatomical features of the charcoal from the burnt layer. a Growth-ring curvature of the pine wood; b class distribution of the average growth-rings width of pine-derived charcoal

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On the basis of these results and the clear selection of mostly trees for building, we suggest that these would have formed part of the supporting structure of buildings, such as beams and posts, or other smaller pieces including mouldings, joinery, panelling, etc. There is no clear evidence for the use of small diameter branches for roof timbers. In the case of P. nigra/sylvestris wood charcoal, the absence of wood from the centre of the trunks may indicate that heavy-duty woodworking was taking place elsewhere and that timber was transported to the site as flat-sawn wood, across the tangent of the rings without crossing the pith (Adam 1989, p. 101), or that the central and toughest part of the trunk was used for other specific purposes of which we have no record at the settlement.

All the charcoal fragments with weakly curved rings were systematically measured to assess the average radial growth. This parameter has been calculated for each fragment and for each taxon. We have measured 58 wood charcoal fragments and 795 rings of P. nigra/sylvestris, and 10 fragments and 24 rings of P. halepensis (Table 4). Although the sample for the latter is not large enough to provide significant results, the measurements are shown in Fig. 5b, to allow for comparison between the two taxa.

Table 4 Dendrological characteristics of timber from Pinus halepensis and P. nigra/sylvestris from the burnt destruction layer
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The measurement of the widths of weakly curved growth rings resulted in an average value of 0.614 mm for P. nigra/sylvestris and 1.824 mm for P. halepensis. The annual growth rate would have been quite low and regular in P. nigra/sylvestris, which might indicate climatic and/or ecological causes. These trees could have grown in competition with others or near the boundary of their optimal ecological conditions. In addition, older specimens usually have a growth rate significantly lower than that of younger trees, suggesting that the pines recovered from Pobla might have come from mature stable woods. The average ring width values for P. halepensis ranged between 0.75 and 3.75 mm. Such a large range may suggest that this timber came from heterogeneous woodland, with open areas and isolated tree stands. This is the general tendency that may be inferred from the available results, but is insufficient to allow the overall plant population density to be determined, as only a few individual pieces could be measured. The differing values obtained for pine charcoal from Pobla suggest that these taxa came from different areas.

Discussion

Analysis of firewood remains from occupation and abandonment phases and of building timber at Pobla allows for an approximation of the vegetation in the area, and the management and the supply of resources during the 13–14th centuries a.d. The wood charcoal evidence may be read in relation to the available medieval documents.

Vegetation and climate at the time of settlement at Pobla d’ Ifach

Pine woodland would have grown in the areas surrounding Ifach, while on the rock proper the main vegetation cover would have been a dense matorral with Pistacia, scattered Pinus and other xerophilous and thermophilous plants. Evergreen oaks would have been quite sparse mostly due to the dry conditions prevailing in the area. The geographical particularities of the littoral zone with the nearby coastal lagoons and saline soils are reflected in the presence of Populus/Salix, Tamarix and the monocotyledons.

The climatic conditions in the area during the 13–14th centuries a.d. may be inferred by considering the ecological preferences of the autochthonous taxa that were used at Pobla. Apart from the mountain pines used for timber, all the remaining taxa grow naturally in the area at present and they require thermomediterranean conditions to flourish, with mean annual temperatures between 17 and 19°C, rare frosts mainly between December and February, and low precipitation (mean annual 400 mm).

The above conditions would have prevailed in the area at the time of Pobla although the short life of the settlement coincides with the cold period defined as the Little Ice Age (LIA) that started in the 13–14th century and culminated in the 15th, extending even to the 16th century a.d. (Porter 1986). At the southern latitudes where the study area is located the climatic change of the LIA is not reflected with the same magnitude as in northern Europe. The flora identified at Pobla does not suggest conditions any different from present and the pollen record for the Alicante area, in agreement with the wood charcoal data, shows that pines and other xerophilous trees and shrubs were dominant in the area during the late Holocene (Burjachs et al. 1997). However, a possible change might be reflected in the precipitation regime with heavy rainfall concentrated in the autumn, causing severe flooding. Such events were recorded between a.d. 1290 and 1400 for the rivers Júcar (1328), Turia and Segura (Benito et al. 1997).

Woodland management and use of wood resources

Medieval sources mention that large scale woodland management, for charcoal, tar, cork production and ship building, was important at the time and ran in parallel with small scale management for domestic firewood, and fuel for bread ovens, pottery, lime, glass and tile kilns, in addition to timber for building houses and making furniture and farming equipment. Additionally, farmers may have caused fires to clear new agricultural land. The authorities tried to minimize the risk of woodland loss and associated lack of resources and subsequent conflict between landlords, farmers and citizens, by means of severe controls on the use of woodlands (Furió 1993, p. 276). Woodland, garrigue, pasture and water sources were controlled by the crown and were ceded to landlords through municipal charters that regulated their use together with hunting and fishing (Furió 1993, p. 278). Strict regulations were applied in particular to the use of pines since these trees formed the only woodland in the area and uncontrolled felling would have caused loss of woodland. In 1408 pines could be pruned but not cut down (Ferrer i Mallol 1990, pp. 485–537) and at the city of Elx, felling of pines for charcoal production was banned although their timber could be used for making beams.

At Pobla the use of Pinus halepensis for firewood is well documented in all occupation phases and woodland management would have been regulated in agreement with the orders described above.

The remains of cultivated trees are quite rare in the wood charcoal assemblages of Pobla and it is therefore difficult to argue for the use of pruned material for fuel. It is very probable that no systematic tree cultivation was practised on the rock proper, given that the agricultural land was located on the coastal area of Calp opposite Ifach. Moreover, all information about terracing on the rock post dates the destruction and abandonment of the settlement. This suggests that only a small number of cultivated trees would have been grown, mainly in gardens and small plots destined to complement the diet of the population or to be used for animal fodder. Nevertheless, we should keep in mind that in this coastal area (the Marina area) the pruning of olives, almonds and carobs was not a systematic practice in medieval times or even later until the end of the 18th century (Cavanilles 1797, p. 223). It is thus possible that the small quantities of fruit tree charcoal remains found are due to the lack of any systematic pruning of orchards.

The progressive abandonment of the settlement after the Castilian-Genoese attack in 1359 would have produced changes in the patterns of land use throughout the territory and in the supply of resources, firewood included. For the whole of the 15th century the rock was considered an unstable area exposed to looting and piracy, a situation that would have caused the deterioration of communication and transport networks (Menéndez Fueyo 2009). In this regard, the wood charcoal results from the abandonment phases show that the needs for firewood of the last occupants were supplied by local resources, the vegetation growing on the rock. Although P. halepensis remained the main fuel source there was an increased use of matorral plants such as Pistacia, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Ephedra. We may suggest that the abandonment phases show predominant use of local vegetation growing on the rock, while the use of the pine woodland shown in previous occupation phases corresponded to a wider area of activities and supply that was fully developed during the time that the settlement flourished. Its progressive abandonment may also be seen in the re-use of building timber as domestic fuel. Moreover, the scarcity of fruit tree remains, of which only Prunus amygdalus/persica/armeniaca have been identified, point to the decline of agricultural and other activities. This situation ended with relocation of the population to nearby settlements and the newly founded village of Calp (Menéndez Fueyo 2009; Pastor Fluixà 1988).

The timber supply areas

The charcoal results offer empirical data about the wood taxa used for the construction of the settlement. At least three different pine species were used: Pinus halepensis, P. pinaster and P. nigra/sylvestris. P. halepensis is abundant in all wood charcoal assemblages at the site, so high availability of this species can be assumed; P. pinaster could have grown within or near the territory of Roger de Llùria (Fig. 6). However, the other pine species identified in the destruction layer, P. nigra and P. sylvestris, are not native in the surroundings of Ifach, so their presence in the charcoal record is probably an indication of longer distance transport and commerce.

Fig. 6
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Location of traditional timber supplying areas in Spain (modified after Piqueras Haba and Sanchís Deusa 2001) and some settlements mentioned in the text

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Information about the supply of timber for building at Pobla is scarce. In the municipal charter of 1419, during one of the attempts to repopulate the settlement after the destruction of 1359, there is a detailed mention of the actions that should be taken in order to obtain timber for the reinforcement of roofs, domestic structures and other buildings. It is clearly stated that tree-felling in the surrounding area was completely forbidden, with the exception of new settlers at Pobla (García García 1986; Menéndez Fueyo 2009). From this reference we may infer that uncontrolled tree-felling, mainly of Aleppo pines, had previously taken place.

Pinus halepensis would have grown on the rock, but due to strong winds the trunks of these trees would have been twisted and therefore unsuitable for building. The pine timber used in the buildings of the settlement would have been transported from other areas where trees grew straight. It is possible that systems and routes established for large scale supply of timber to the naval industry were used. The latter demanded large quantities of high quality timber which originated in the interior mountains and was transported by river to the shipyards along the coast (Furió 1993, p. 279).

The nearest populations of P. nigra to Ifach are currently located on the Segura-Cazorla massif, or Serranía of Cuenca, both more than 150–200 km from the site (Fig. 6). This species also grows on the mountains further to the north, the Javalambre, Peñagolosa and Gúdar massifs, up to 1,800 m a.s.l., above which P. sylvestris woods dominate. The Segura-Cazorla area was the frontier with the nasrid territories and although it seems that the second half of the 14th century was a relatively peaceful period between Aragon and Granada, limiting their conflicts to the sea (De Coca and Castañer 1982), it is unlikely that large scale timber supply could have been sustained during unstable and occasionally hostile conditions. This suggests that the mountain pine woodlands controlled by the Crown of Aragon (Serranía de Cuenca) would have been the main timber source (Fig. 6).

Wood trade from these territories along the Valencian coast is documented during the Middile Ages, with trade routes that could have provided Pobla with timber. The earliest mention of such routes is dated to the 12th century during the Islamic period, when the geographer al-Idrisi made a brief description of the provenance, destination and use of the timber. According to his account, trees were cut at Quelaza, a fortified enclave which was 3 days’ walk to the east of Cuenca, three from Alpuente and another three from Albarracín. Timber was thrown into the river and carried to the sea at Cullera from where it was transported to Denia for shipbuilding and to Valencia for public and private building (Barceló 1989). The area described by al-Idrisi coincides with the woodlands of Serranía de Cuenca (Fig. 6), which via the river Cabriel, provided Alcira and Valencia with timber (Piqueras Haba and Sanchís Deusa 2001, p. 196). After the Christian conquest of Valencia in 1238, timber felling was promoted by eliminating taxes and allowing all means of transport, thus guaranteeing supply to the capital. At the beginning of the 14th century the main timber source, at least for Valencia, was again located in the Cabriel basin (Fig. 6; Furió 1993; Piqueras Haba and Sanchís Deusa 2001).

Considering this information we suggest that the mountain pine timber used at Ifach originated from within the boundaries of the territory of the Crown of Aragon, Serranía of Cuenca being the most probable place, arriving at the settlement by means of a combination of river and sea transport. Due to the fact that Mediterranean rivers have a low perennial flow, timber was left to be carried by the current, a simple and economical method of transport that was commonly used along the rivers Tajo, Júcar, Turia, Segura and Guadalquivir (Piqueras Haba and Sanchís Deusa 2001, p. 128). The ideal timbers for this form of transport were those destined for the production of beams, poles and ship parts for which the best woods were Fagus, Abies and various pines including P. sylvestris and P. pinaster.

Conclusions

Wood charcoal and dendrological analyses of fuel and building timber remains from the main occupation and abandonment levels at Pobla indicate that:

  • In the broader coastal area, Pinus halepensis woodland extended along the foothills while the natural vegetation on the rock was matorral with scattered pines. These were probably the natural vegetational formations, a response to the prevalent thermomediterranean bioclimatic conditions and especially the low levels of precipitation.

  • During the first half of the 14th century a.d. and under stable political and economic conditions, P. halepensis was the main firewood source at the settlement while matorral, wetland and cultivated plants were used sporadically. Organized and controlled firewood supply was probably from the P. halepensis woodlands along the coast, located within a wide network of activities which were fully developed during the time when the settlement flourished.

  • Scarcity of wood charcoal remains from cultivated trees, such as prunings used for fuel, indicates that no systematic tree cultivation was practised on the rock proper. This is in agreement with the look-out function of the settlement and the location of its agricultural land on the coastal area of Calp, opposite Ifach.

  • During the second half of the 14th century a.d. warfare and unstable conditions led to the gradual abandonment of the settlement and its former provisioning networks. This situation is reflected in the abundant use of local resources for fuel, mainly matorral bushes and Pistacia lentiscus which grew on the rock proper.

  • The use of local and extra-local timber for the construction of the settlement is reflected in the presence of Pinus halepensis, P. pinaster and P. nigra/sylvestris in a burnt destruction layer. For the former species, given its abundance at the settlement, its nearby availability can be assumed. Pinus pinaster could have grown near to the area used by the settlement. The mountain pines P. nigra and P. sylvestris would have reached Ifach by long-distance trade routes established within the territory of the Crown of Aragon, which provided timbers for naval ship building and construction.

  • Dendrological measurements of P. nigra/sylvestris indicate that mainly trunks or large branches growing in mature and stable woods were used. This is in agreement with the use of the northern woodlands, Serranía de Cuenca, of the Crown of Aragon. Various size timbers of P. halepensis were used and estimates of average growth values indicate that these would have been obtained in woodlands of variable density, with open areas and isolated tree stands.