Introduction

Prior to the present study there has been little systematic sampling of sites in the region, and published results concerning crop plants are limited to a small number of finds (Lisitsina 1984; Gandilyan 1997). The aim of this work was therefore to gain for the first time evidence for the agricultural economy in the Ararat valley during the Neolithic.

Aratashen and Aknashen are the earliest known agricultural settlements in the Republic of Armenia (Avetisyan et al. 2006), and they are the only Neolithic sites to have been sampled for plant remains. The sites are situated in the Ararat valley, on the banks of the rivers Kassakh and Sev-Jur (tributaries of the Arax), at an altitude of 850 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1) and are separated by only 5 km. Aratashen (N 40° 08′ 08.2″, E 44° 14′ 05.3″) is located 5 km southwest, and Aknashen (N 40° 06′ 05.8″, E 44° 17′ 38.9″) about 6 km south of Vagharshapat, the ancient capital. Both sites are low mounds or tells (blur in Armenian). The excavated structures consist of circular daub buildings constructed in pisé (mudbrick). Larger structures are interpreted as houses, the smaller ones as ovens (tonir in Armenian) or storage structures (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 1
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Site location map. Aratashen 1, Aknashen 2

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Fig. 2
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Photos showing the excavated pisé structures at Aratashen 1 and at Aknashen 2

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The site of Aratashen has 2.5 m of stratigraphy, with two archaeological levels: I (upper) and II (lower). Level I was about 1 m thick and level II about 1.5 m. Radiocarbon dates indicate that the earliest level (II) dates to the first half of the sixth millennium cal b.c. Level I falls between middle of the sixth and middle of the fifth millennium cal b.c. (see Table 1). The upper levels of the site were destroyed by recent terracing works. Preliminary results at Aratashen have been published (Badalyan et al. 2007).

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates from the two sites
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The Aknashen stratigraphy is 4 m deep. It is divided into 5 levels. Levels 1–4 of the site belong to the Pottery Neolithic period. The earliest level, 5, at Aknashen dates to the beginning of the sixth millennium cal b.c. (see Table 1; Badalyan et al. 2007).

At both sites numerous finds of querns, mortars, stone tools and obsidian sickle blades provide evidence of crop processing activities.

The sites are situated on a plain in the Ararat valley which slopes towards the river Arax. The climate of the area is continental with cold dry winters with an average temperature in January of −6°C. Spring is moist, while summers are hot and dry with an average temperature of 25°C. Autumn is dry and mild. Annual rainfall varies between 200 and 300 mm. Irrigation is practised in the region today and there is no dry farming (Baghdasaryan 1962). Prior to human impact the vegetation was probably a steppe with scattered deciduous trees and gallery forests along the rivers.

Material and methods

Sampling was carried out during the excavation and pisé was systematically sampled from the buildings. Charred and mineralized seed remains were recovered by flotation using a 0.3 mm mesh size. The sediment was wet-sieved using a 1 mm mesh size. The flotation samples came from hearths, floors, pits, etc. Approximately 510 l of sediment were processed at Aratashen (15 samples), and 780 l at Aknashen (72 samples; see Table 2). The average volume of the samples was 10–20 l. The charred remains represent less than 1% of the processed sediments; they were better preserved at Aknashen compared to Aratashen probably because of the depth of the sediments. The pisé was generally very fragile except in cases where it had been burned. Charred material was also found trapped in the hardened burnt pisé. Occasionally we consolidated the pisé with diluted water-based emulsified acrylic resin to conserve the remains.

Table 2 Plants identified from Neolithic settlements of Aratashen and Aknashen
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The total number of identifications for each taxon, both charred and mineralized, is given in Table 2. For the impressions approximate frequencies are given. The identifications were made using the comparative seed collections at the Institute of Botany of the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia and the relevant literature (Maysuryan and Atabekova 1931; Kats and Kats 1946; Dobrokhotov 1961; Takhtajyan and Fedorov 1972; Gandilyan 1980; Dorofeev et al. 1976, 1979; Lukjanova et al. 1990; Terrell and Peterson 1993; Zohary and Hopf 2000; Takhtajyan 1954–2001; Jacomet 2006a). Nomenclature for cultivated plants follows Zohary and Hopf (2000, traditional classification), and for weeds and wild plants Czerepanov (1995) and Takhtajyan (1954–2001).

Results

572 items of charred and mineralized remains were identified from Aratashen, and about 70 samples of pisé (we use this term for all types of building earth) were examined for impressions which were left by the chaff temper (Table 2). 2991 items of charred and mineralized remains were identified from Aknashen and 90 fragments of pisé were examined (Table 2).

37 taxa were identified from samples at Aknashen and 16 from Aratashen (Table 2). Most taxa were identified from charred remains. However, examination of the pisé provided useful additional information. Plant impressions at both sites consisted of cereal chaff, including spikelet bases, glumes, stems, rachis fragments, grains and leaf fragments, etc. Capsules of Alyssum and pods of lentils were also common. Almost all the pisé examined contained plant impressions of cereal chaff and/or capsules of Alyssum. Some impressions were not identifiable. The impressions occasionally contained charred remains indicating that the pisé had been burned. The best preserved impressions were found in the burnt pisé. The number of impressions of cereal chaff varied from a few to several hundred for each fragment of pisé examined. Impressions of grains were rare because it was the chaff that was used as a tempering medium in the pisé and the grains would have been removed during winnowing. Of the charred material some caryopses were puffed and the outer layers were damaged. Many of the grains were broken and lacked the embryo.

The following cereals were identified from impressions and charred remains from flotation samples (Table 2). Grains resembling those of naked wheat (Fig. 3, 1–3) were common in the flotation samples and impressions of glumes resembling those of free-threshing wheat were found in the pisé. However, because only one free-threshing rachis fragment was identified and the grains are difficult to distinguish from emmer when charred at high temperatures in the dehusked state, we cannot exclude the possibility that a large proportion of these grains was emmer (Braadbaart 2008). At sites where naked wheat was positively identified, both chaff and grains were present, for example at Shortughai (Willcox 1991). With regard to the ploidy level at Shortughai there were hundreds of well-preserved rachis segments which were identified as hexaploid. For the Aratashen material no identification was possible.

Fig. 3
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Charred cereal grains and pulse seeds from Aratashen and Aknashen Neolithic settlements. 1–3 naked wheat; 4 emmer (the grains 4a and 4b were recovered from a single spikelet in the burnt pisé); 5 possibly single grained einkorn; 6,7 naked barley recovered from pisé; 8,9 hulled barley (from pisé); 10–15 lentil; 16 bitter vetch. Archaeological contexts: Aratashen, Level II—4 (K06); 6 (UF324); 10,11 (UF291); 12 (UF341). Aknashen, Horizon 5—1,3 (Sond. A, UF10, F6); 2,5 (Sond. A, UF12); 8,9 (Sond. A, UF14a); 13–15 (Sond. A, UF10, F5); 16 (Sond. A, UF13a, Str.1); Horizon 3—7 (Tr.4, UF6)

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Triticum dicoccum was identified from charred grains (Fig. 3, 4) and also from impressions of spikelet bases in the pisé. Two grains resembling T. cf. monococcum (single-grained einkorn) (Fig. 3, 5) were found; however these could be small grains of emmer.

Fig. 4
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Seeds and plant impressions from Aratashen and Aknashen Neolithic settlements. 1,2 Charred capsule fragments of Camelina microcarpa; 3,4 charred seeds of Alyssum desertorum (from pisé); 5 charred Vitis sylvestris; 6 mineralized seed of Capparis spinosa; 7 Lithospermum officinale, mineralized; 8,9 Buglossoides arvensis mineralized; 10,11 charred nutlets of Bolboschoenus maritimus; 12,13 charred nutlets of Rumex crispus; 14 charred seeds of Hyoscyamus niger; 15 mineralized nutlet of Calystegia sepium; 16 mineralized nutlet of Convolvulus arvensis. 17–26 impressions in pisé: 17 triplet of naked six-rowed barley; 18–20 lentil valves; 21,22 lentil seeds; 23,24 Camelina microcarpa capsule valves; 25,26 Alyssum desertorum capsule valves. Archaeological contexts: Aratashen, Level I—3,4 (UF94); 5 (UF87); Level II —10,11 (Str.48); 17 (K06); 19,20,22 (str. 25); 21 (str. 22); 23,24 (K02); 26 (UF273, str.19). Aknashen, Horizon 1—18 (Tr.1, UF4); Horizon 3—14,16 (Tr.2, UF6); Horizon 5—1,2,8,9,12,13,15 (Sond. A, UF12); 6,7 (Sond. A, UF14, Str.2); 25 (Sond. A, UF9)

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Charred barley grains were more frequent than those of wheat. Impressions of barley were found in the form of threshed internodes showing the median and two lateral spikelets (triplet in Fig. 4, 17) with bases of both the palea and the lemma. These are typical products from threshed naked six-rowed barley (Janushevich 1976). A few well preserved grains of Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste (naked barley) (Fig. 3, 6 and 7) with the rounded form and dorsal folds from Aratashen and Aknashen confirm this identification. Hulled barley (Fig. 3, 8–9) was also present.

Two species of pulse, Lens culinaris ssp. microsperma (small-seeded lentil) (Fig. 3, 10–15; Fig. 4, 18–22) and Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch) (Fig. 3, 16) were recovered from both sites in the form of charred seeds. Lentils were also identified from impressions of pods and seeds. Charred bitter vetch was rare at Aknashen and only one impression of a pod was found in Aratashen (level II, str. 22).

Impressions of capsules from two wild species of crucifer were common at both sites. These consisted of Alyssum desertorum (desert alyssum) (Fig. 4, 3–4, 25–26) and Camelina microcarpa [=Camelina sativa ssp. microcarpa] (a species of false-flax) (Fig. 4, 1–2, 23–24).

Two charred Vitis sylvestris (grape) pips were found during the 2001 excavations at Aratashen (level I, UF87). The morphology of the pips resembled that of pips from wild vines (see Fig. 4, 5). Wild vines are still found growing in the lower and middle mountain forest zones of northeast and southeast Armenia. (Takhtajyan 1954–2001).

Seeds and fruits of wild/weed plants were common; these are discussed below (see Fig. 4 and Table 1). Non-charred bio-mineralized nutlets of Celtis sp. (hackberry) were found at both sites and one charred stone of Elaeagnus sp. (oleaster) was present at Aknashen.

Discussion

Chaff impressions from cereals, pulses and crucifers found in the pisé from the two sites represent crop processing residues that were used as temper. Cereal chaff has been very commonly used as tempering material in many parts of the world including Armenia, from the early Neolithic to the present day. Pods of lentils and bitter vetch are less commonly used.

The presence of processing residues of Alyssum and Camelina is of particular interest. The impressions consisted exclusively of the separated valves of the capsules. This strongly suggests that the capsules had been broken to release the seeds during threshing. The seeds and the chaff would have been separated by winnowing. These plants have seeds with high oil content. The very high concentrations of Alyssum and Camelina processing residues suggest that these plants, usually considered wild plants, were either gathered or cultivated at Aknashen and Aratashen for their seeds. The high frequencies of these two taxa in a wide range of samples indicate that they were important economic plants. A few complete carbonized capsules of Alyssum were found at Aratashen (Level I, UF94, Fig. 4, 3–4). Common oil plants such as flax, poppy or Carthamus tinctorius (safflower) were absent, suggesting that Camelina and Alyssum may have replaced them. Camelina cf sativa seeds were found in large quantities at the Urartian site of Karmir-Blur (seventh-sixth centuries b.c.) where they were used for oil production (Tumanyan 1944). This is the first time Alyssum has been found associated with an oil-producing cultivar.

Camelina sativa has been used traditionally in the region for a long time (Stoletova 1930). Alyssum was also found in concentrations at the early Neolithic site of Dja’de in Syria, suggesting that it may have been used there as well (Willcox et al. 2007); also from central Europe, in lake dwellings there are high frequencies of crucifer seeds which may have been used as oil plants (Schlichtherle 1981; Maier 2001). Wild crucifers were also found in a storage context at Neolithic Çatalhöyük in Turkey (Fairbairn et al. 2007).

Naked wheat and barley, emmer, lentil and bitter vetch have been found on other prehistoric and medieval sites in Armenia (Gandilyan 1997; R. Hovsepyan, in preparation). These crops together with wild grape, recovered from Aknashen and Aratashen, are known from other Neolithic sites in the Caucasus (Nergul 1960; Lisitsina and Prishchepenko 1977; Lisitsina 1984; Janushevich 1984; Wasylikowa et al. 1991; Zohary and Hopf 2000). Naked wheat and barley are not frequent components of Near Eastern Neolithic cereal assemblages, which are dominated by emmer and hulled barley (Nesbitt 2002). In central Europe free-threshing wheats were common during the Neolithic (Maier 1996; Jacomet 2006b, 2007). In the western Mediterranean a similar assemblage, with high frequencies of naked barley and wheat has been identified at Neolithic sites in Spain (Buxo 2007).

Wild plants found at the sites come from various habitats. Weeds of cultivation were an important group, consisting of Convolvulus, Galium, Rumex, Brassica, Bromus, Chenopodium, Amaranthus, Lithospermum, Polygonum, Thlaspi and Calystegia. Another group of taxa, which includes some of the same species, consisted of ruderals such as Hyoscyamus niger and species of Rumex, Chenopodium, Amaranthus and Polygonum, which would have grown near the settlements (Fig. 4, 7–16). These taxa can be found growing in the region today.

The hygrophilous plants such as Bolboschoenus maritimus, Carex sp. and Cyperus sp. (all in the Cyperaceae family) would have grown on the flood plain of the rivers not far from the sites. They could have come from animal dung used as fuel; charred sheep/goat coprolites were found at Aratashen (Level II, Str. 48).

Four hackberry stones and one oleaster stone were identified. Two species, Elaeagnus angustifolia L. and E. orientalis L. (oleaster) and two of Celtis caucasica Willd. and C. glabrata Stev. ex Planch (hackberry) occur in the region today (Takhtajyan and Fedorov 1972). It is probable that trees and shrubs have been greatly reduced as a result of human impact. Hackberry fruits have been used since the Palaeolithic period in Armenia; for example, they were found at the Hovk-1 cave in the Ijevan region (Hovsepyan in prep.).

Woody plants such as Celtis and Eleagnus combined with identifications of charcoal (H. Pessin, personal communication) which include Chenopodiaceae type, Acer sp., Phragmites sp., Populus sp., Quercus sp. (deciduous), Tamarix sp. and Amygdalus sp. provide evidence of the surrounding vegetation (Badalyan et al. 2007). Quercus, Celtis and Amygdalus must have grown much nearer the site in the past, but pressure from agriculture, grazing and wildfires have led to a reduction in the tree cover in this area since the Neolithic.

A combination of poor preservation and less sampling at Aratashen compared to Aknashen makes any comparison between the two sites hazardous. However their plant economies appear to have been similar.

Conclusions

The Neolithic sites of Aratashen and Aknashen are characterized by naked barley and possibly naked wheat and emmer. Hulled barley was also present. Einkorn may have been present, perhaps as a weed. Pulses, small-seeded lentil and bitter vetch were also cultivated. Both sites provide evidence, for the first time, of the use of two wild crucifers, Alyssum and Camelina. Alyssum has not previously been reported as an economically important plant. We suggest that these two plants may have been used for the oil in their seeds. Two carbonized grape pips found at Aratashen represent an early find of this species which is rare during this period.

This study gives some hints as to how Neolithic agriculture in Armenia differs from other areas. The presence of naked barley and two unusual oil plants demonstrate a distinct regional development. However these results are based on a small number of samples from only two sites. The information we have for the vine (two seeds), or Elaeagnus (only one identification) and naked wheat (only one rachis fragment) illustrates the need for more solid data to consolidate the interpretations. This need can only be satisfied by further sampling of a wider range of sites.