Abstract
The survival of primates in moderately disturbed forests is determined by a complex of variables. Correlation analyses suggest that ecological features of a species may confer a basal survival ability but that details of the form of disturbance may be crucially important. Correlation analyses reveal that body size alone is a poor predictor of primate response to moderate forest disturbance. However, when the effects of diet variables are held constant, body size more strongly correlates with survival ability (smaller species surviving better). Degree of frugivory shows a significant negative correlation with survival ability at both univariate and multivariate levels of analysis. In contrast, dietetic diversity is not correlated with survival ability at either level of analysis. Together, body size and percentage frugivory explain 44% of the variation in species’ responses to moderate habitat disturbance. Idiosyncratic responses of species can usually be traced to specific features of the changing environment, such as selective elimination of important food sources and, conversely, the presence of increased densities of particular food sources arising from the disturbance.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Adams, D. M. (1985). A spatial equilibrium model of African-European trade in tropical logs and sawn wood.For. Ecol. Manag. 13: 265–287.
Albrecht, H. (1976). Chimpanzees in Uganda.Oryx 13: 357–361.
Asiaweek (1984). Wound in the world.Asiaweek 10: 32–55.
Asibey, E. O. A. (1978). Primate conservation in Ghana. In Chivers, D. J., and Lane-Petter, W. (eds.),Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol. 2, Conservation, Academic Press, New York and London, pp. 55–74.
Ayres, J. M. (1981).Observacoes Sobre a Ecologia e o Comportamento dos Cuxius (Chiropotes albinasus e Chiropotes satanas,Cebidae: Primates), Grafisa, Belem.
Ayres, J. M. (1983). Conservation of primates in Brazilian Amazonia: problems and strategies. In Harper, D. (ed.),Conservation of Primates and Their Habitats, Vaughan Paper No. 31, University of Leicester, Leicester, pp. 2–33.
Ayres, J. M., and Milton, K. (1981). Levantamento de primatas e habitat no Rio Tapajos.Bol. Mus. Pa. Emilio Goeldi N. Ser. Zool. 111: 1–11.
Baldwin, P. J., McGrew, W. C., and Tutin, C. E. G. (1982). Wide-ranging chimpanzees at Mt. Assirik, Senegal.Int. J. Primatol. 3: 367–385.
Berenstain, L. (1986). Responses of long-tailed macaques to drought and fire in eastern Borneo: A preliminary report.Biotropica 18: 257–262.
Branch, L. C. (1983). Seasonal and habitat differences in the abundance of primates in the Amazon (Tapajos) National Park, Brazil.Primates 24: 424–431.
Butynski, T. M. (1985). Primates and their conservation in the Impenetrable (Bwindi) Forest, Uganda.Primate Conservat. 6: 68–72.
Chivers, D. J., and Hladik, C. M. (1984). Diet and gut morphology in primates. In Chivers, D. J., Wood, B. A., and Bilsborough, A. (eds.),Food Acquisition and Processing in Primates, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 213–230.
Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P. H. (1977). Species differences in feeding and ranging behaviour in primates. In Clutton-Brock, T. H. (ed.),Primate Ecology, Academic Press, New York and London, pp. 557–584.
Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P. H. (1984). Comparative approaches to investigating adaptation. In Krebs, J. R., and Davies, N. B. (eds.),Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass., pp. 7–29.
Coimbra-Filho, A. F. (1977). Natural shelters ofLeontopithecus rosalia and some ecological implications (Callitrichidae: Primates). In Kleiman, D. G. (ed.),The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichidae, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 79–89.
Conner, R. N. (1979). Minimum standards and forest wildlife management.Wildl. Soc. Bull. 7: 293–296.
Davies, G. (1986). The orang-utan in Sabah.Oryx 20: 40–45.
Davies, G. (1986). Conservation of primates in the Gola Forest Reserves, Sierra Leone.Primate Conservat, (in press).
Defier, T. R. (1979). On the ecology and behaviour ofCebus albifrons in Eastern Colombia. 1. Ecology.Primates 20: 475–490.
Dietz, L. A. (1985). Captive-born golden lion tamarins released into the wild: A report from the field.Primate Conservat. 6: 21–27.
Dittus, W. P. J. (1977). The social regulation of population density and age-sex distribution in the toque monkey.Behaviour 63: 281–322.
Eggeling, W. J., and Dale, I. R. (1952).The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda Protectorate, Government Printer, Entebbe, Uganda.
Fonseca, G. A. B. (1985). Observations on the ecology of the muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides E. Geoffroy 1806): implications for its conservation.Primate Conservat. 5: 48–52.
Freese, C. H., and Oppenheimer, J. R. (1981). The capuchin monkeys, genusCebus. In Coimbra-Filho, A. F., and Mittermeier, R. A. (eds.),Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Primates, Academia Brasileira de Ciencias, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 331–390.
Freese, C. H., Freese, M. A., and Castro, R. N. (1977). The status of callitrichids in Peru. In Kleiman, D. G. (ed.),The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichidae, Smithso-nian Institution Press, Washington, D. C., pp. 121–130.
Freese, C. H., Heltne, P. G., Castro, R. N., and Whitesides, G. (1982). Patterns and determinants of monkey densities in Peru and Bolivia, with notes on distributions.Int. J. Primatol. 3: 53–90.
Gartlan, J. S., and Struhsaker, T. T. (1972). Polyspecific associations and niche separation of rain-forest anthropoids in Cameroon, West Africa.J. Zool. 168: 221–266.
Gaulin, S. J. C., and Gaulin, C. K. (1982). Behavioral ecology ofAlouatta seniculus in An-dean cloud forest.Int. J. Primatol. 3: 1–32.
Gaulin, S. J. C., and Konner, M. J. (1977). On the natural diet of primates, including humans. In Wurtman, R., and Wurtman, J. (eds.),Nutrition and the Brain, Raven Press, New York, Vol. 1, pp. 1–86.
Gautier-Hion, A. (1971). L’écologie du talapoin du Gabon.Terre Vie 25: 427–490.
Gittins, S. P. (1979).Behavioural Ecology of the Agile Gibbon, Hylobates agilis, Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
Hall, J. B., and Swaine, M. D. (1981).Distribution and Ecology of Vascular Plants in a Tropical Rain Forest, Dr. W. Junk, The Hague, Boston, and London.
Harcourt, A. H. (1981). Can Uganda’s gorillas survive? A survey of the Bwindi Forest Reserve.Biol. Conservat. 19: 269–282.
Harding, R. S. O. (1984). Primates of the Kilimi Area, Sierra Leone.IUCN/SSC Primate Special. Group Newslett. 4: 32–34.
Hladik, A., and Hladik, C. M. (1969). Rapports trophiques entre vegetation et primates dans la forÊt de Barro Colorado (Panama).Terre Vie 23: 25–117.
Howard, P. C. (1986). Conservation of tropical forest wildlife in Western Uganda. Unpublished annual report, WWF Project 3235.
Isbell, L. A. (1983). Daily ranging behavior of red colobus(Colobus badius tephrosceles) in Kibale Forest, Uganda.Folia primatol. 41: 34–48.
Jeffrey, S. M. (1978). The effects of logging on rainforest fauna of West Africa and East Kaliman-tan. InProceedings of the Eighth World Forestry Congress, Vol. VII, Jakarta, Indonesia, pp. 393–400.
Johns, A. D. (1981). The effects of selective logging on the social structure of resident primates.Malays, appl. Biol. 10: 221–226.
Johns, A.D. (1983a).Ecological Effects of Selective Logging in a West Malaysian Rain-forest, Ph.D. thesis. University of Cambridge, Cambridge.
Johns, A. D. (1983b). Primates and selective logging: An overview. In Harper, D. (ed.),Con-servation of Primates and their Habitats, Vaughan Paper No. 31, University of Leicester, Leicester, pp. 86–100.
Johns, A. D. (1983c). Wildlife can live with logging.New Sci. 99: 206–211.
Johns, A. D. (1983d). Tropical forest primates and logging: Can they co-exist?Oryx 17: 114–118.
Johns, A. D. (1985a). Current status of the southern bearded saki(Chiropotes satanas satanas).Primate Conservat. 5: 28.
Johns, A. D. (1985b). Primates and forest exploitation at Tefe, Brazilian Amazonia.Primate Conservat. 6: 27–29.
Johns, A. D. (1985c). Behavioral responses of two Malaysian primates (Hylobates lar andPresbytis melalophos) to selective logging: Vocal behavior, territoriality, and nonemigra-tion.Int. J. Primatol. 6: 423–433.
Johns, A. D. (1986a).Effects of Habitat Disturbance on Rainforest Wildlife in Brazilian Amazonia, Unpublished report to WWF-US, Washington, D.C.
Johns, A. D. (1986b). The effects of commercial logging on a West Malaysian primate com-munity. In King, F. A., and Taub, D. (eds.),Proceedings of the IXth IPS Congress, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 206–211.
Johns, A. D. (1986c). Effects of selective logging on the behavioral ecology of West Malaysian primates.Ecology 67: 684–694.
Johnson, D. H. (1981). How to measure habitat: A statistical perspective. In Capen, D. E. (ed.),The Use of Multivariate Statistics in Studies of Wildlife Habitat, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-87, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Sta-tion, Fort Collins, Colo., pp. 53–58.
Kano, T. (1984). Distribution of pygmy chimpanzees(Pan paniscus) in the central Zaire basin.Folia primatol. 43: 36–52.
Karr, J. R. (1982). Population variability and extinction in the avifauna of a tropical land bridge island.Ecology 63: 1975–1978.
Kawai, M., Ando, S., and Mizuno, A. (1975). A quantitative study on the activities of the forestliving monkeys in the Kibale Forest of Uganda by using a telemetric method.Kyoto Univ. Afr. Stud. 9: 1–20.
Kay, R. F. (1984). On the use of anatomical features to infer foraging behavior in extinct primates. In Rodman, P. S., and Cant, J. G. H. (eds.),Adaptations for Foraging in Nonhuman Primates, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 21–53.
Kingdon, J. (1971).East African Mammals, Vol. I, Academic Press, New York.
Kinzey, W. G. (1977). Diet and feeding behaviour ofCallicebus torquatus. Clutton-Brock, T. H. (ed.),Primate Ecology, Academic Press, New York and London, pp. 127–151.
Kinzey, W. G. (1981). The titi monkeys, genusCallicebus. In Coimbra-Filho, A. F., and Mit-termeier, R. A. (eds.),Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Primates, Vol. 1, Acad. Bras. Cien., Rio de Janeiro, pp. 241–276.
Kortlandt, A. (1983). Marginal habitats of chimpanzees.J. hum. Evol. 12: 231–278.
Lanly, J. P. (1982). Tropical forest resources, Forestry Paper No. 30, FAO, Rome.
Leighton, M., and Leighton, D. R. (1983). Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rainforest. In Sutton, S. L., Whitmore, T. C., and Chadwick, A. C. (eds.),Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 181–196.
Leighton, M., and Wirawan, N. (1986). Catastrophic drought and fire in Bornean tropical rain forest associated with the 1982-83 ENSO event. In Prance, G. T. (ed.).Tropical Rain-forest and World Atmosphere, Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Sel. Symp. 101, Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., pp. 75–102.
Lovejoy, T. E., Rankin, J. M., Bierregaard, R. O., Jr., Brown, K. S., Jr., Emmons, L. H., and van der Voort, M. E. (1984). Ecosystem decay of Amazon forest remnants. In Nitecki, M. H. (ed.),Extinctions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 295–325.
Lovejoy, T. E., Bierregaard, R. O., Jr., Rylands, A. B., Malcolm, J. R., Quintela, C. E., Harper, L. H., Brown, K. S., Jr., Powell, A. H., Powell, G. V. N., Schubart, H. O. R., and Hays, M. B. (1986). Edge and other effects of isolation on Amazon forest fragments. In Soule, M. E. (ed.),Conservation Biology (II), Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass., pp. 257–285.
MacKinnon, J. R. (1979). A glimmer of hope for Sulawesi.Oryx 15: 55–59.
MacKinnon, J. R., and MacKinnon, K. S. (1980a). Niche differentiation in a primate community. In Chivers, D. J. (ed.),Malayan Forest Primates, Plenum Press, London, pp. 167–190.
Marsh, C. W., and Wilson, W. L. (1981).A Survey of Primates in Peninsular Malaysian Forests. Final Report, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Marsh, C. W., Johns, A. D., and Ayres, J. M. (1986). Effects of habitat disturbance on rain-forest primates. In Gartlan, J. S., Marsh, C. W., and Mittermeier, R. A. (eds.),Primate Conservation in Tropical Rain Forest, Alan Liss, New York, pp. 83–107.
Martin, C., and Asibey, E. O. A. (1979). Effect of timber exploitation on primate populations and distribution in the Bia rain forest area of Ghana. Paper presented to VIIth IPS Con-gress, Bangalore, India.
Martin, R. D. (1981). Field studies of primate behaviour.Symp. zool. Soc. London 46: 287–336.
McKey, D. (1978). Soils, vegetation, and seed-eating by black colobus monkeys. In Montgomery, G. G. (ed.),Arboreal Folivores, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 423–437.
Melillo, J. M., Palm, C. A., Houghton, R. A., Woodwell, G. M., and Myers, N. (1985). A comparison of two recent estimates of disturbance in tropical forests.Environ. Conser-vat. 12: 37–40.
Mergen, F. (ed.) (1981).Tropical Forests, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.
Mittermeier, R. A., and Coimbra-Filho, A. F. (1977). Primate conservation in Brazilian Amazonia. In H. S. H. Rainier III and Bourne, G. H. (eds.),Primate Conservation, Academic Press, New York and London, pp. 117–166.
Mittermeier, R. A., Bailey, R. C., and Coimbra-Filho, A. F. (1977b). Conservation status of the Callitrichidae in Brazilian Amazonia, Surinam, and French Guiana. In Kleiman, D. G. (ed.),The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichidae, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 137–146.
Mohamed Khan bin Momin Khan (1978). Man’s impact on the primates of peninsular Malaysia. In Chivers, D. J., and Lane-Petter, W. (eds.),Recent Advances in Primatology. Vol. 2: Conservation, Academic Press, New York and London, pp. 41–46.
Murnyak, D. F. (1981). Censusing the gorillas in Kahuzi-Biega National Park.Biol. Conser-vat. 21: 163–176.
Myers, N. (1984).The Primary Source, W. W. Norton, New York and London.
Myers, N. (1986). Tropical deforestation and a mega-extinction spasm. In Soule, M. E. (ed.),Conservation Biology (11), Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.
New Scientist (1984). The world’s worst fire: Counting the cost.New Sci. 104 (1431): 9.
Nie, N. H., Bent, D. H., and Hull, C. H. (1970).Statistical Programs for the Social Sciences, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Oates, J. F. (1977a). The guereza and man. In H. S. H. Rainier III and Bourne, G. H. (eds.),Primate Conservation, Academic Press, New York, pp. 419–467.
Oates, J. F. (1977b). The guereza and its food. In Clutton-Brock, T. H. (ed.),Primate Ecology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 275–321.
Oates, J. F., Gartlan, J. S., and Struhsaker, T. T. (1982). A framework for planning African rain-forest primate conservation.Int. Primatol. Soc. News 1: 4–9.
Oliveira, J. M. S., Lima, M. G., Bonvincino, C., Fleagle, J. G., and Ayres, J. M. (1986). Preliminary notes on the ecology and behaviour of the Guianan saki (Pithecia pithecia, Linnaeus, 1766; Cebidae, Primates).Acta Amazon, (in press).
Payne, J. B. and Davies, A. G. (1982).A Faunal Survey of Sabah, World Wildlife Fund Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Primack, R. B., and Chai, P. (1984). Growth rates of Moraceae trees in Sarawak rain-forest. In Chadwick, A. C., and Sutton, S. L. (eds.),Tropical Rain-Forest, Spec. Publ. Leeds Phil. Lit. Soc., Leeds, U.K., pp. 316–317.
Ricklefs, R. E. (1979).Ecology, Chiron Press, New York and Concord.
Rijksen, H. D. (1978).A Field Study of Sumatran Orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii,Lesson 1827): Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation, H. Veenman and Zonen, B. V. Wageningen.
Robinson, J. G., and Ramirez, C. J. (1982). Conservation biology of neotropical primates. In Mares, M. A., and Genoways, H. M. (Genoways, (eds.),Mammalian Biology, Spec. Publ. No. 6, Pymatuning Laboratory of Ecology, University of Pittsburgh, Linesville, Pa., pp. 329–344.
Rodgers, W. A. (1981). The distribution and conservation status of colobus monkeys in Tan-zania.Primates 22: 33–45.
Rodman, P. S. (1973). Synecology of Bornean primates: A test for interspecific interactions in spatial distribution of five species.Am. J. phys. Anthrop. 38: 655–660.
Rucks, M. G. (1976). Notes on the problems of primate conservation in Bia National Park. Unpublished report to Department of Game and Wildlife, Accra, Ghana.
Ryan, T. A., Jr., Joiner, B. L., and Ryan, B. F. (1981).Minitab Reference Manual, Düxbury Press, Boston.
Rylands, A. B. (1981). Preliminary field observations on theCallithrix humeralifer intermedius (Hershkovitz, 1977) at Dardanelos, Rio Aripuana, Matto Grosso.Primates 22: 46–59.
Salter, R. E., and MacKenzie, N. A. (1981). Habitat-use behaviour of the proboscis monkey(Nasalis larvatus) in Sarawak. National Parks and Wildlife Office, Forest Department, Sarawak.
Skorupa, J. P. (1986). Responses of rainforest primates to selective logging in Kibale Forest, Uganda: A summary report. In Benirschke, K. (ed.),Primates: The Road to Self-Sustaining Populations, Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 57–70.
Skorupa, J. P. (1987).Effects of Selective Timber Harvesting on Rain-Forest Primates in Kibale Forest, Uganda, Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Davis (in preparation).
Skorupa, J. P., and Kasenene, J. M. (1984). Tropical forest management: Can rates of natural treefalls help guide us?Oryx 18: 96–101.
Struhsaker, T. T. (1975).The Red Colobus Monkey, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Struhsaker, T. T. (1976). A further decline in numbers of Amboseli vervet monkeys.Biotropica 8: 211–214.
Struhsaker, T. T. (1978). Food habits of five monkey species in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. In Chivers, D. J., and Herbert, J. (eds.).Recent Advances in Primatology. Vol. 1: Behaviour, Academic Press, New York and London, pp. 225–248.
Struhsaker, T. T. (1981). Polyspecific associations among tropical rain-forest primates.Z. Tierpsychol. 57: 268–304.
Struhsaker, T. T., and Oates, J. F. (1975). Comparison of the behavior and ecology of red colobus and black-and-white colobus monkeys in Uganda: A summary. In Tuttle, R. H. (ed.),Socio-ecology and Psychology of Primates, Mouton, The Hague and Paris, pp. 103–123.
Suzuki, A. (1971). On the problems of conservation of the chimpanzees in East Africa and the preservation of their environment.Primates 12: 415–418.
Teleki, G., and Baldwin, L. (1979). Known and estimated distributions of extant chimpanzee populations (Pan troglodytes andPan paniscus) in Equatorial Africa. Unpublished Special Report to IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group.
Terborgh, J. (1983).Five New World Primates, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
Terborgh, J. (1986). Keystone plant resources in the tropical forest. In Soule, M. E. (ed.),Con-servation Biology (II), Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass., pp. 330–344.
Terborgh, J., and Winter, B. (1980). Some causes of extinction. In Soule, M. E., and Wilcox, B. A. (eds.),Conservation Biology, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass., pp. 119–133.
Tilson, R. L. (1977). Social behaviour of Simakobu monkeys and its relationship to human predation.J. Mammal. 58: 202–212.
Tutin, C. E. G., and Fernandez, M. (1984). Nationwide census of gorilla(Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee(Pan t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon.Am. J. Primatol. 6: 313–336.
UNESCO (1978).Tropical Forest Ecosystems, UNESCO-UNEP, Paris.
Van Roosmalen, M. G. M. (1980). Habitat preferences, diet, feeding strategy and social organisation of the black spider monkey (A teles paniscus paniscus Linnaeus 1758) in Surinam. Rijksintituut voor Natuurbeheer, Rapport 80/13, Leersum.
van Roosmalen, M. G. M., Mittermeier, R. A., and Milton, K. (1981). The bearded sakis, genusChiropotes. In Coimbra-Filho, A. F. and Mittermeier, R. A. (eds.),Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Primates, Vol. 1, Acad. Bras. Cien., Rio de Janeiro, pp. 419–441.
Watanabe, K. (1981). Variations in group composition and population density of the two sym-patric Mentawaian leaf-monkeys.Primates 22: 145–160.
Watkins, B. E., Ullrey, D. E., and Whetter, P. A. (1985). Digestibility of a high-fibre biscuitbased diet by black and white colobus(Colobus guereza).Am. J. Primatol. 9: 137–144.
Willis, E. O. (1974). Populations and local extinctions of birds on Barro Colorado Island, Panama.Ecol. Monogr. 44: 153–169.
Wilson, C. C., and Wilson, W. L. (1975). The influence of selective logging on primates and some other animals in East Kalimantan.Folia primatol. 23: 245–274.
Wilson, C. C., and Wilson, W. L. (1976). Behavioral and morphological variation among primate populations in Sumatra.Yb. phys. Anthrop. 20: 207–233.
Wilson, W. L. and Johns, A. D. (1982). Diversity and abundance of selected animal species in undisturbed forest, selectively logged forest, and plantations in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.Biol. Conservat. 24: 205–218.
Wolfheim, J. H. (1983).Primates of the World, University of Washington Press, Seattle and London.
Wrangham, R. W. (1977). Feeding behaviour of chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. In Clutton-Brock, T. H. (ed.),Primate Ecology, Academic Press, New York, and London, pp. 503–538.
Young, O. P. (1982). Aggressive interaction between howler monkeys and turkey vultures: The need to thermoregulate behaviorally.Biotropica 14: 228–231.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Johns, A.D., Skorupa, J.P. Responses of rain-forest primates to habitat disturbance: A review. Int J Primatol 8, 157–191 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02735162
Received:
Revised:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02735162