Summary
The outdoor cultivation of sea vegetables is carried out on a large scale in the Orient, mainly in Japan, China, Taiwan, Korea and the Philippines. Food crops are the most important among the sea vegetables cultivated, with Porphyra and Undaria being the more important in Japan and Laminaria in China. Eucheuma, an industrial crop containing the phycocolloid carrageenan, is cultivated in wide areas of the Philippines. The cultivation of the major food crops, which developed quickly over the past 30 years, is largely based on the results of research, especially with regard to seeding procedures, which have reached a certain level of sophistication.
The major crops of sea vegetables are cultivated attached to ropes or nets located in a suitable site and habitat. Crops of limited economic value, however, are still cultivated by the old, primitive method of planting on stones on the ocean bed and other similar means. The location and timing of farming are selected with regard to the requirements of the plants for light, temperature, water movement, exposure to air (for the intertidal species),etc. Cultivation of seeding material of the three food crops and seeding of ropes and nets is carried out indoors under more or less controlled conditions. When the sporelings become established they are transferred to cultivation grounds in the ocean. When the plantlets grow too densely (in Laminaria) they have to be separated and replanted at the correct distances. This is done several weeks after transplantation to the ocean, when they are large and sufficiently strong. Eucheuma and other industrial crops are propagated vegetatively, using cuttings and fragments as planting material. Where seawater is lacking in nutrients, fertilizers are applied to guarantee a higher yield. The harvest is carried out manually, except for Porphyra, for which mechanical harvesters are used. Sea vegetables are attacked by pathogens that may cause severe damage to the crops. Diseases caused by improper growing conditions are also known. Grazers may also inflict losses. In all major crops the strains cultivated have been selected. In a few cases hybridization and other genetic techniques have been used to obtain domesticated varieties that can grow and yield far beyond the limits of their wild-type parents.
Despite the fact that some mechanization has been introduced into the cultivation of sea vegetables, it is still by and large a highly labor-intensive enterprise. Nevertheless, it competes well with terrestrial crops in the Orient from the economic point of view.
Interest in the cultivation of sea vegetables is widespread in the West and much experimental work aimed at its materialization has been underway during the lastca. twenty years.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Adams R W and Austin A 1979 Potential yields ofIridaea cordata (Florideophyceae) in natural and artificial populations in the northeast Pacific. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 499–507.
Akiyama K and Kurogi M 1982 Cultivation ofUndaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar, the decrease in crops from natural plants following crop increase from cultivation. Bull. Tohoku Reg. Fish. Res. Lab. 44, 91–100.
Alleen A A 1980Pythium marinum Sparrow (Phycomycetes) infestingPorphyra leucostica Thuret in the Mediterranean Sea. Bot. Mar. 23, 405–407.
Bardach J E, Ryther J H and McLarney W O 1972 Aquaculture. The Farming and Husbandry of Freshwater and Marine Organisms. Wiley-Interscience. New York.
Bonotto S 1976 Cultivation of plants. Multicellular plants.In Marine Ecology, Vol. 3, pt. 1, Ed. O. Kinne. pp 467–501. J. Wiley and Sons, London.
Braud J P and Delepine R 1981 Growth response ofChondrus crispus (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) to light and temperature in laboratory and outdoor tank culture. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 553–558.
Braud J P and Perez R 1979 Farming on pilot scale ofEucheuma spinosum (Florideophyceae) in Djibouti waters. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 533–539.
Cai P X 1983 Summering of Laminaria sporophyte in south China and the cultivation of summer sporelings. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 27.
Chauhan V D and Taqui Khan M M 1983 Marine algae Sargassum, their utilization and cultivation. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 31.
Chen D, Liu X Y, Liu X Z, Yu Y D, Yang Z H and Qui S H 1983 Studies on alginic acid-decomposing bacteria. III. The cause of rot disease and detaching of Laminaria sporophytes in sporeling culture stations and their preventive measures. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 33.
Chen L C M, Morgan K and Simpson F J 1982 Selection of tetrasporophytes of Irish moss. Bot. Mar. 25, 35–36.
Cheney D P 1982 Genetic modification in seaweeds: applications to commercial utilization and cultivation.In Biotechnology in the Marine Sciences, Proc. MIT Sea Grant Conf., pp 1–15, Wiley Press, New York.
Cheney D, Mathieson A and Schubert D 1981 The application of genetic improvement techniques to seaweed cultivation: I. Strain selection in the carrageenophyteChondrus crispus. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 559–567.
Cheng T H 1969 Production of kelp — a major aspect of China's exploitation of the sea. Econ. Bot. 23, 215–236.
Chiang Y M 1981 Cultivation ofGracilaria (Rhodophycophyta, Gigartinales) in Taiwan. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 569–574.
Cui G F, Zheng Q S, Gu S B and Wang X K 1983 A preliminary account on preventing weed algae from growing on the nets ofPorphyra yezoensis. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 52.
Dawes C J 1981 Marine Botany, J. Wiley and Sons, New York.
Dodds J A 1979 Viruses of marine algae. Experientia 35, 440–442.
Doty M S 1973 Farming the red seaweed, Eucheuma, for carrageenans. Micronesica 9, 59–73.
Doty M S 1979 Status of marine agronomy, with special reference to the tropics. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 35–58.
Doty M S 1980 Outplanting Eucheuma species and Gracilaria species in the tropics.In Pacific Seaweed Aquaculture, Proc. Symp. Useful Algae. Eds. I A Abbott, M S Foster and L F Eklund. pp 19–22. California Sea Grant College Program, Inst. Mar. Resources, Univ. Calif., La Jolla.
Doty M S and Alvarez V B 1973 Seaweed farms: a new approach for U.S. industry. Proc. 9th Ann. Conf. Mar. Tech. Soc., pp 701–708.
Doty M S and Alvarez V B 1975 Status, problems, advances and economics of Eucheuma farms. Mar. Tech. Soc. J. 9 (4), 30–35.
Drew K M 1949 Conchocelis phase in the life history ofPorphyra umbilicalis (L.) Kutz. Nature 164, 748–749.
Druehl L D 1983 Morphological and physiological responses ofMacrocystis pyrifera to nitrate enrichment. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 60.
Druehl L D and Boal R 1981 Manipulation of the laminarialean life-cycle and its consequences for kombu mariculture. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 575–580.
Druehl L D and Lloyd K E, 1983 Long line cultivation of three species of Laminariaceae. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 61.
Friedlander M and Lipkin Y 1982 Rearing of agarophytes and carrageenophytes under field conditions in the eastern Mediterranean. Bot. Mar. 25, 101–105.
Fuller M S, Lewis B and Cook P 1966 Occurrence of Pythium sp. on the marine alga Porphyra. Mycologia 58, 313–318.
Gerard V and North W 1981 Kelp growth on an ocean farm in relation to fertilizing. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 581–586.
Giaccone G, Princi M, Feoli E, Lokar Cassini L, Rizzi Longo L and Tortul V 1979 Valutazione delle risorse vegetali lagunari del Basso Tirreno e sperimentazione di coltivazione controllata dell'alga rossaGracilaria verrucosa e di altre agarofite in Sicilia. Atti Conv. Sci.
Guist G G Jr, Dawes C J and Castle J R 1982 Mariculture of the red seaweed,Hypnea musciformis. Aquaculture 28, 375–384.
Guo X K 1983 A kind of Laminaria disease in Dalian. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 298.
Hasegawa Y 1966 Cultivation of Laminaria in Japan. 11th Pacif. Sci. Congr., Tokyo. Sect. VII Fish., Symp. 36. Algae in the Pacific. Aug. 27 1966, p 5.
Hasegawa Y 1972 Forced cultivation of Laminaria. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 7, 391–393.
Hasegawa Y 1976 Progress of Laminaria cultivation in Japan. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33, 1002–1006.
Hasegawa Y 1978 Immediate problems facing Laminaria cultivation. Bull. Hokkaido Reg. Fish. Res. Lab. 43, 89–92.
Jiang B Y, Qu W Y and Tang Z J 1983 The breeding and utilization of a new variety ofLaminaria japonica Aresch. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 104.
Kain J M and Holt T J 1983 Cultivation of Laminariales species on ropes in the Irish Sea. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 106.
Kazama F Y 1979 Pythium ‘red rot disease’ of Porphyra. Experientia 35, 443–444.
Kurogi M 1980 Biological research on seaweed.In Aquaculture in Shallow Seas: Progress in Shallow Sea Culture, Ed. T Imai, pp 3–56. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Laite P and Ricohermoso M 1981 Revolutionary impact of Eucheuma cultivation in the South China Sea on the carrageenan industry. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 595–600.
Lapointe B E, Williams L D, Goldman J C and Ryther J H 1976 The mass outdoor culture of macroscopic marine algae. Aquaculture 8, 9–21.
Li R Z, Chong R Y and Meg Z C 1983 Preliminary study on raft cultivation ofGracilaria verrucosa andGracilaria sjoestedtii. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 130.
Lim J R H 1983 Effects of the environment on the growth of Eucheuma in the Danajon Reef Farm, northern Bohol, Philippines. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 137.
Lim J R and Porse H 1981 Breakthrough in the commercial culture ofEucheuma spinosum in northern Bohol, Philippines. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 601–606.
Lin D H and Lin Y S 1983 Studies on the green disease ofPorphyra haitanensis Chang et Zheng. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 139.
Liu S J and Zhuang P 1983 The commercial cultivation of Eucheuma in China. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 147.
Mairh O P, Thomas P C, Ramavat B K and Sreenivasa Rao P 1979 Fertilizer pellets and their application in the field cultivation ofGelidiella acerosa (Forssk.) Feld. et Hamel. Abstr. Int. Symp. Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean Region, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, p. 25.
Martin E L and Benson R L 1982 Algal viruses, pathogenic bacteria and fungi: introduction and bibliography.In Selected Papers in Phycology II, Eds. J R Rosowski and B C Parker, pp 792–798.
Mathieson A C 1981 Seaweed cultivation: a review. Proc. 6th U.S.-Japan Meeting on Aquacult. U.S. Dept. Commer., Rep. NMFS Circ. 442, 25–66.
Mathieson A C and North W J 1982 Algal aquaculture: introduction and bibliography.In Selected Papers in Phycology II. Eds. J R Rosowski and B C Parker. pp 773–778. Phycological Society of America, Lawrence, Kansas.
Mshigeni K E 1976 Field cultivation of Hypnea (Florideophyceae) spores for carrageenan: prospects and problems. Bot. Mar. 19, 227–230.
Mshigeni K E 1983 The red algal genus Eucheuma (Gigartinales, Solieriaceae) in east Africa: an underexploited marine source. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 182.
Mumford T F Jr 1977 Growth of Pacific northwest marine algae on artificial substrates — potential and practice.In The Marine Plant Biomass of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Ed. R W Krauss. pp 139–161. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
Mumford T F Jr 1977 Some biological, legal, social, and economic aspects of the culture of the red algaIridaea cordata on nets in Puget Sound. Proc. Conf. The Use, Study and Management of Puget Sound, Washington Sea Grant Publ., pp 221–229.
Mumford T F Jr 1979 Field and laboratory experiments withIridaea cordata (Florideophyceae) grown on nylon netting. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 515–523.
Mumford T F Jr 1980 Seaweed culture in Washington and British Columbia: potential and practice. Proc. Int. Symp. Coastal Pacific Marine Life. Western Washington Univ., Bellingham, pp 13–30.
Mumford T M Jr and Waaland J R 1980 Progress and prospects for field cultivation ofIridaea cordata andGigartina exasperata.In Pacific Seaweed Aquaculture, Proc. Symp. Useful Algae. Eds. I A Abbott, M S Foster and L F Eklund. pp 92–105, California Sea Grant College Program, Inst. Mar. Resources, Univ. Calif., La Jolla.
Naylor J 1976 Production, trade and utilization of seaweeds and seaweed products. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 159.
Nelson S G, Tsutsui R N and Best B R 1980 A preliminary evaluation of the mariculture potential of Gracilaria (Rhodophyta) in Micronesia: growth and ammonium uptake.In Pacific Seaweed Aquaculture, Proc. Symp. Useful Algae. Eds. I A Abbott, M S Foster and L F Eklund, pp 72–79, California Sea Grant College Program, Inst. Mar. Resources, Univ. Calif., La Jolla.
Neushul M 1977 The domestication of the giant kelp, Macrocystis, as a marine plant biomass producer.In The Marine Plant Biomass of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Ed. R W Krauss. pp 163–181, Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
Nicotri M E 1977 The impact of crustacean herbivores on cultured seaweed populations. Aquaculture 12, 127–136.
North W J 1977 Algal nutrition in the sea — management possibilities.In The Marine Plant Biomass of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Ed. R W Kruass. pp 215–230. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
North W, Gerard V and McPeak R 1981 Experimental fertilizing of coastal Macrocystis beds. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 613–618.
Ohno M 1979 Ecology of cultivated sea weeds of warm water in Japan. Abstr. Int. Symp. Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean Region, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, p. 24.
Parker H S 1974 The culture of the red algal genus Eucheuma in the Philippines. Aquaculture 3, 425–439.
Patel J B, Gopal B V, Nagulan V R, Subbaramaiah K and Thomas P C 1979 Experimental field cultivation ofGelidiella acerosa at Ervadi, India. Abstr. Int. Symp. Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean Region, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, pp 24–25.
Patel N B, Gopal B V, Nagulan V R, Subbaramaiah K, Thomas P C and Mehta D J 1979 Experimental field cultivation ofGelidiella acerosa at Krusadai Island. Int. Symp. Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean Region. Late Abstr. No. 2. 10, mimeographed.
Patwary M U and van der Meer J P 1983 Improvement ofGracilaria tikvahiae (Rhodophyceae) by genetic modification of thallus morphology. Aquaculture 33, 207–214.
Polne M, Neushul M and Gibor A 1981 Studies in domestication ofEucheuma uncinatum. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 619–624.
Raju P V and Thomas P C 1971 Experimental field cultivation ofGracilaria edulis (Gmel.) Silva. Bot. Mar. 14, 71–75.
Ren G Z, Wang J C and Chen M Q 1983 Studies on the fixed raft method of Gracilaria cultivation. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 211.
Richohermoso M A and Deveau L E 1979 Review of commercial propagation of Eucheuma (Florideophyceae) clones in the Philippines. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 525–531.
Ryther J H, DeBoer J A and Lapointe B E 1979 Cultivation of seaweeds for hydrocolloids, waste treatment and biomass for energy conversion. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 1–16.
Saito Y 1972 On the effect of environmental factors on morphological characteristics ofUndaria pinnatifida and the breeding of hybrids in the genus Undaria.In Contributions to the Systematics of Benthic Marine Algae of the North Pacific. Eds. I A Abbott and M Kurogi. pp 117–132, pl 1, Japanese Society of Phycology, Kobe.
Saunders R G and Lindsay J G 1979 Growth and enhancement of the agarophyte Gracilaria (Florideophyceae). Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 249–255.
Segi T and Kida W 1961 On the relation between distribution of early germlings of Monostroma and tidal current in the culture ground. Bot. Mar. 2, 223–230.
Shacklock P F and Croft G B 1981 Effect of grazers onChondrus crispus in culture. Aquaculture 22, 331–342.
Shacklock P F and Doyle R W 1983 Control of epiphytes in seaweed cultures using grazers. Aquaculture 31, 141–151.
Shang Y C 1976 Economic aspects of Gracilaria culture in Taiwan. Aquaculture 8, 1–7.
Simonetti G, Giaccone G and Pighnatti S 1970 The seaweedGracilaria confervoides, an important object for autecologic and cultivation research in the northern Adriatic Sea. Helgolander Wiss. Meereunters. 20, 89–96.
Smith A H, Nichols K and McLachland J 1983 Cultivation of seamoss (Gracilaria) in St. Lucia, West Indies. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 229.
Soegiarto A 1979 Indonesian seaweed resources: their utilization and management. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 463–471.
Torii S and Kawashima S 1979 Experiments on propagation of Laminaria (Phaeophyceae). I. Propagation ofL. japonica by plastic pipe (netron) in sandy substrate. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 473–478.
Tseng C K 1981 Marine phycoculture in China. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 123–152.
Tseng C K 1981 Commercial cultivation.In The Biology of Seaweeds, Botanical Monographs. Vol 17, Eds. C S Lobban and M J Wynne, pp 680–725, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley.
Uyenco F R, Saniel L S and Jacinto G S 1981 The ‘ice-ice’ problem in seaweed farming. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 625–630.
Waaland R J 1977 Growth of Pacific northwest marine algae in semi-closed culture.In The Marine Plant Biomass of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Ed. R W Krauss, pp 117–137, Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
Waaland J R 1979 Growth and strain selection inGigartina exasperata (Florideophyceae). Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 241–247.
Wheeler W N, Neushul M and Harger B W W 1981 Development of a coastal marine farm and its associated problems. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 631–636.
Wheeler W N, Neushul M and Woessner J W 1979 Marine agriculture: progress and problems. Experientia, 35, 433–435.
Wilcox H A 1977 The U.S. Navy's Ocean Food and Energy Farm Project.In Ocean Energy Resources. Ed. N T Monney. pp 83–104, Am. Soc. Mechanical Engin., New York.
Wu C Y, Zheng S Q and Tseng C K 1981 Tip-cutting of fronds as a means of increasing production in Laminaria aquaculture. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 637–642.
Yamamoto Nori Manufacturing Co. 1978 Asakusa-nori. 16 mm film. Gakken Co. Ltd., Tokyo, 25 min.
Yoneshigue-Braga Y and Baeta Neves M H C 1981 Preliminary studies on mass culture ofGracilaria sp. using different nutrient media. Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 10, 643–648.
Yoshida T and Akiyama K 1979 Streblonema (Phaeophyceae) infection in the frond of cultivated Undaria (Phaeophyceae). Proc. Int. Seaweed Symp. 9, 219–223.
Yoshida T and Akiyama K 1980 Techniques of seaweed culture.In Aquaculture in Shallow Seas: Progress in Shallow Sea Culture. Ed. T Imai. pp 66–96, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Zhang D M, Miao G R and Lin Q S 1983 A summary of cultivation techniques in summer Laminaria seedlings. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 280.
Zhang Y J, Yang Y X, Wang S R and Wang Q Y 1983 A preliminary study of the breeding and genetics ofPorphyra yezoensis Ueda. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 286.
Zhao H D and Zhang X C 1983 Isolation and cultivation of the vegetative cellsPorphyra yezoensis Ueda and its potential use in commercial production. Abstr. Int. Seaweed Symp. 11, 304.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lipkin, Y. Outdoor cultivation of sea vegetables. Plant Soil 89, 159–183 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02182241
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02182241