Abstract
The neuropsychological effects of Parkinson's disease have gained wide recognition in recent literature. Effects have been documented in almost all areas of cognitive functioning, including general intellectual functioning, visual-spatial functioning, executive functions, attention and memory functions, language functions, and affective processes. Visual-spatial functions, memory functions, and executive functions have received particular interest. This review of the literature is an attempt to tie together the large number of studies in these cognitive areas and to present a suggestion for a comprehensive neuropsychological battery tailored to the patient with Parkinson's disease. Throughout the review, factors relevant to Parkinson's disease, e.g., dementia, motor symptoms, and hemiparkinsonism, are considered.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Albert, M., Feldman, R., and Willis, A. (1974). The “subcortical dementia” of progressive supranuclear palsy.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 37: 121–130.
Alpert, M., Martin, C., Welkowitz, J., Rosen, A., and Borod, J. (1987). The use of vocal acoustics to differentiate affective disorders.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 9: 283.
Alpert, M., Martin, C., Welkowitz, J., Brozgold, A., and Borod, J. (1988). The interaction between depression and flat affect in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 10: 33.
Army Individual Test Battery (1944).Manual of Directions and Scoring, War Department, Adjutant General's Office, Washington, DC.
Asso, D. (1969). W.A.I.S. scores in a group of Parkinson patients.British Journal of Psychiatry 115: 555–556.
Baddeley, A. (1986).Working Memory, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Bayles, K., and Kaszniak, A. (1987).Communication and Cognition in Normal Aging and Dementia, Little, Brown and Company, Boston.
Bayles, K., and Tomoeda, C. (1983). Confrontation naming impairment in dementia.Brain and Language 19: 98–114.
Benecke, R., Rothwell, J., Dick, J., Day, B., and Marsden, C. (1986). Performance of simultaneous movements in patients with Parkinson's disease.Brain 109: 739–757.
Benson, D. F. (1984). Parkinsonian dementia: Cortical or subcortical?Advances in Neurology 40: 235–241.
Bentin, S., Silverberg, R., and Gordon, H. (1981). Asymmetrical cognitive deterioration in demented and Parkinson patients.Cortex 17: 533–544.
Benton, A. (1968). Differential behavioral effects in frontal lobe disease.Neuropsychologia 6: 53–60.
Benton, A. (1974).The Revised Visual Retention Test, Psychological Corporation, New York.
Benton, A., Hamsher, K., Varney, N., and Spreen, O. (1983).Contributions to Neuropsychological Assessment, Oxford University Press, New York.
Best, C., and Taylor, N. (1966).The Physiological Basis of Medical Practice, Williams and Wilkens, Baltimore, MD.
Birkmayer, W., Riederer, P., and Youdim, M. (1979). Distinction between benign and malignant type of Parkinson's disease.Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 81: 158–164.
Blonder, L., Gur, R., Saykin, A., and Gur, R. (1987). Regional neuropsychological functioning in hemiparkinsonism.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 9: 65.
Bodis-Wollner, I., Harnois, C., Bobak, P., and Mylin, L. (1983). On the possible role of temporal delays of afferent processing in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neural Transmission S.19: 243–252.
Boller, F., Mizutani, T., Roessman, U., and Gambetti, P. (1980). Parkinson disease, dementia, and Alzheimer disease: Clinicopathological correlations.Annals of Neurology 7: 329–335.
Boller, F., Passafiume, D., Keefe, N., Rogers, K., Morrow, L., and Kim, Y. (1984). Visuospatial impairment in Parkinson's disease: Role of perceptual and motor factors.Archives of Neurology 41: 485–490.
Borod, J., Alpert, M., Brozgold, A., Martin, C., Welkowitz, J., Diller, L., Peselow, E., Angrist, B., and Lieberman, A. (1989). A preliminary comparison of flat affect schizophrenics and braindamaged patients on measures of affective processing.Journal of Communication Disorders 22: 93–104.
Botez, M., and Barbeau, A. (1975). Neuropsychological findings in Parkinson's disease: A comparison between various tests during long-term levodopa therapy.International Journal of Neurology 10: 222–229.
Bowen, F., and Yahr, M. (1976). Behavioral alterations in patients with basal ganglia lesions. In Yahr, M. (ed.),The Basal Ganglia, Raven Press, New York, pp. 169–180.
Bowen, F., Brady, E., and Yahr, M. (1973). Short and long range studies of memory, intelligence, and perception in Parkinson patients treated with levodopa. In Siegfried (ed.),Parkinson's Disease: Rigidity, Akinesia, and Behavior. V.2, Hans Huber, Bern, pp. 315–315.
Bowen, F., Burns, M., Brady, E., and Yahr, M. (1976). A note on alterations of personal orientation in parkinsonism.Neuropsychologia 14: 425–429.
Bowen, F., Hoehn, M., and Yahr, M. (1972). Cerebral dominance in relation to tracking and tapping performance in patients with parkinsonism.Neurology 22: 32–39.
Bowen, F., Kamienny, R., Burns, M., and Yahr, M. (1975). Parkinsonism: Effects of Ievodopa treatment on concept formation.Neurology 25: 701–704.
Brooks, D., and Frackowiak, R. (1989). PET and movement disorders.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry Special Supplement: 68–77.
Brown, R., and Marsden, C. (1986). Visuospatial function in Parkinson's disease.Brain 109: 987–1002.
Brozgold, A. (1988). The objective measurement of facial expression in patients with right brain damage and Parkinson's disease. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, City University of New York, New York.
Buck, R., and Duffy, R. (1980). Nonverbal communication of affect in brain-damaged patients.Cortex 16: 351–362.
Chouza, C., Romera, S., Laguardia, G., Pou, G., Lorenzo, J., Flores, M., Wozniak, A., Feres, S., Caamano, J., and Schroeder, A. (1984). Hemiparkinsonism: Clinical, neuropsychological, and tomographical studies. In Hassler, R., and Christ, J. (eds.),Advances in Neurology (Vol. 40), Raven Press, New York, pp. 415–425.
Cools, A., Van Den Bercken, J., Horstink, M., Van Spaendonck, K., and Berger, H. (1984). Cognitive and motor shifting aptitude disorder in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 47: 443–453.
Cummings, J., and Benson, D. (1984). Subcortical dementia: Review of an emerging concept.Archives of Neurology 41: 874–879.
Cummings, J., Darkins, A., Mendez, M., Hill, M., and Benson, D. (1988). Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease: Comparison of speech and language alterations.Neurology 38: 680–684.
Dakof, G., and Mendelsohn, G. (1986). Parkinson's disease: The psychological aspects of a chronic illness.Psychological Bulletin 99: 375–387.
Danielczyk, W. (1983). Various mental behavioral disorders in Parkinson's disease, primary degenerative senile dementia, and multiple infarction dementia.Journal of Neural Transmission 56: 161–176.
Danta, G., and Hilton, R. (1975). Judgment of the visual vertical and horizontal in patients with parkinsonism.Neurology 25: 43–47.
Darley, F., Brown, J., and Swenson, W. (1986). Language changes after neurosurgery for Parkinsonism.Brain & Language 2: 65–69.
De Lancey Horn, D. (1971). Performance on delayed response tasks in patients with Parkinsonism.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 34: 192–194.
de la Monte, S., Wells, S., Hedley-Whyte, E., and Growdon, J. (1989). Neuropathological distinction between Parkinson's dementia and Parkinson's plus Alzheimer's disease.Annals of Neurology 26: 309–320.
Delis, D., Direnfield, L., Alexander, M., and Kaplan, E. (1982). Cognitive fluctuations associated with the on-off phenomenon in Parkinson disease.Neurology 32: 1049–1052.
Delis, D., Kramer, J., Kaplan, E., and Ober, B. (1987).California Verbal Learning Test, Manual, Psychological Corporation, New York.
Della Sala, S., Di Lorenzo, G., Giordana, A., and Spinnler, H. (1986). Directional forecast: A specific visuo-spatial impairment of parkinsonians?Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 49: 1258–1265.
Direnfeld, L., Albert, M., Volicer, L., Langlais, P., Marquis, J., and Kaplan, E. (1984). Parkinson's disease: The possible relationship of laterality to dementia and neurochemical findings.Archives of Neurology 41: 935–941.
Dubois, B. (1989). Neuronal basis of cognitive changes in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 11: 96.
Duvoisin, R. (1986). Etiology of Parkinson's disease: Current concepts.Clinical Neuropharmacology 9: S3-S11.
El-Awar, M., Becker, J., Hammond, K., Nebes, R., and Boller, F. (1987). Learning deficit in Parkinson's disease: Comparison with Alzheimer's disease and normal aging.Archives of Neurology 44: 180–184.
Flowers, K., and Robertson, C. (1985). The effect of Parksinson's disease on the ability to maintain a mental set.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 48: 517–529.
Flowers, K., Pearce, I., and Pearce, J. (1984). Recognition memory in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 47: 1174–1181.
Folstein, M., Folstein, S., and McHugh, P. (1975). “Mini-mental state”: A practical method for grading the mental state of patients for the clinician.Journal of Psychiatry Research 12: 189–198.
Freedman, M., and Oscar-Berman, M. (1986). Selective delayed response deficits in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease.Archives of Neurology 43: 886–890.
Freedman, M., Rivoira, P., Butters, N., Sax, D., and Feldman, R. (1984). Retrograde amnesia in Parkinson's disease.Le Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques 11: 297–301.
Frith, C., Bloxham, C., and Carpenter, K. (1986). Impairment in the learning and performance of a new manual skill in patients with Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 49: 661–668.
Garron, D., Klawans, H., and Narin, F. (1972). Intellectual functioning of persons with idiopathic parkinsonism.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders 154: 445–452.
Gilbert, G. (1976). Familial spasmodic torticollis.Neurology 27: 11–13.
Girotti, F., Carella, F., Pia Grassi, M., Soliveri, P., Marano, R., and Caraceni, T. (1986). Motor and cognitive performance of parkinsonian patients in the on and off phases of the disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 49: 657–660.
Goldenberg, G., Wimmer, A., Auff, E., and Schnaberth, G. (1986). Impairment of motor planning in patients with Parkinson's disease: Evidence from ideomotor apraxia.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 49: 1266–1272.
Goodglass, H., and Kaplan, E. (1972).Assessment of Aphasia and Related Disorders, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA.
Gotham, A., Brown, R., and Marsden, C. (1988). ‘Frontal’ cognitive function in patients with Parkinson's disease ‘on’ and ‘off’ levodopa.Brain 111: 299–321.
Hakim, A., and Mathieson, G. (1977). Dementia in Parkinson disease: A neuropathological study.Neurology 29: 1209–1214.
Halstead, W. (1947).Brain and Intelligence, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Hasher, L., and Zacks, R. (1979). Automatic and effortful processes in memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 108: 356–388.
Hietanen, M., and Teravainen, H. (1986). Cognitive performance in early Parkinson's disease.Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 73: 151–159.
Hoehn, M., and Yahr, M. (1967). Parkinsonism: Onset, progression and mortality.Neurology 17: 427–442.
Horn, S. (1974). Some psychological factors in Parkinsonism.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 37: 27–31.
Hovestadt, A., de Jong, G., and Meerwaldt, J. (1987). Spatial disorientation as an early symptom of Parkinson's disease.Neurology 37: 485–487.
Huber, S., Paulson, G., and Shuttleworth, E. (1988). Relationship of motor symptoms, intellectual impairment, and depression in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 51: 855–858.
Huber, S., Shuttleworth, E., Christy, T., Chakeres, D., Curtin, A., and Paulson, G. (1989). Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Parkinson's Disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 52: 1221–1227.
Huber, S., Shuttleworth, E., and Freidenberg, D. (1989). Neuropsychological differences between the dementias of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.Archives of Neurology 46: 1287–1291.
Huber, S., Shuttleworth, E., and Paulson, G. (1986). Dementia in Parkinson's disease.Archives of Neurology 43: 987–990.
Huber, S., Shuttleworth, E., Paulson, G., Bellchambers, M., and Clapp, L. (1986). Cortical versus subcortical dementia: Neuropsychological differences.Archives of Neurology 43: 392–394.
Kaplan, E., Goodglass, H., and Weintraub, S. (1978).The Boston Naming Test, E. Kaplan & H. Goodglass, Boston.
Karoum, F., Chuang, L., Eisler, T., Calne, D., Liebowitz, M., Quitkin, F., Klein, D., and Wyott, R. (1982). Metabolism of (-) deprenyl to amphetamine and methamphetamine may be responsible for deprenyl's therapeutic benefit: A biochemical assessment.Neurology 32: 503–509.
Katsikitis, M., and Pilowsky, I. (1988). A study of facial expression in Parkinson's disease using a novel microcomputer-based method.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 51: 362–366.
Langston, J. (1985). The case of tainted heroin.Science '85 34: 40.
Leenders, K., Palmer, A., and Quinn, N. (1986). Brain dopamine metabolism in patients with Parkinson's disease measured with positron emission tomography.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, & Psychiatry 49: 853–860.
Lees, A., and Smith, E. (1983). Cognitive deficits in the early stages of Parkinson's disease.Brain 106: 257–270.
Lesser, R., Fahn, S., Snider, S., Cote, L., Isgreen, W., and Barrett, R. (1979). Analysis of the clinical problems in Parkinsonism and the complications of long-term levodopa therapy.Neurology 29: 1253–1260.
Leverenz, J., and Sumi, M. (1986). Parkinson's disease in patients with Alzheimer's disease.Archives of Neurology 43: 662–664.
Lichter, D., Corbett, A., Fitzgibbon, G., Davidson, O., Hope, J., Goddard, G., Sharples, K., and Pollack, M. (1988). Cognitive and motor dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.Archives of Neurology 45: 854–860.
Lieberman, A., Dziatolowski, M., Kupersmith, M., Serby, M., Goodgold, A., Korein, J., and Goldstein, M. (1979). Dementia in Parkinson disease.Annals of Neurology 6: 355–359.
Loranger, A., Godell, H., McDowell, F., Lee, J., and Sweet, R. (1972). Intellectual impairment in Parkinson's syndrome.Brain 95: 405–412.
Luria, A. (1966).Higher Cortical Functions in Man, Basic Books, New York.
Marsh, G., and Markham, C. (1973). Does Levodopa alter depression and psychopathology in Parkinsonism patients?Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 36: 925–935.
Martilla, R., and Rinne, U. (1976). Dementia in Parkinson's disease.Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 54: 431–441.
Mata, M., Durovini, K., Wilson, M., and Young, A. (1983). New form of familial Parkinson-dementia syndrome: Clinical and pathologic findings.Neurology 33: 1439–1443.
Matison, R., Mayeux, R., Rosen, J., and Fahn, S. (1982). “Tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon in Parkinson disease.Neurology 32: 567–570.
Matthews, C., and Haaland, K. (1979). The effect of symptom duration on cognitive and motor performance in parkinsonism.Neurology 29: 951–956.
Mattis, S. (1976). Mental status examination for organic mental syndrome in the elderly patient. In Bellak, L., and Karasu, T. (eds.),Geriatric Psychiatry, Grune & Stratton, New York, pp. 77–121.
Mayeux, R., Stern, Y., Cote, L., and Williams, J. (1984). Altered serotonin metabolism in depressed patients with Parkinson's disease.Neurology 34: 642–646.
Mayeux, R., Stern, Y., Rosen, J., and Benson, D. (1983). Is “Subcortical Dementia” a recognizable clinical entity?Annals of Neurology 14: 278–283.
Mayeux, R., Williams, J., Stern, Y., and Cote, L. (1984). Depression and Parkinson's disease. In Hassler, R., and Christ, J. (eds.),Advances in Neurology: Vol. 40. Parkinson-Specific Motor and Mental Disorders, Role of the Pallidum: Pathophysiological, Biochemical and Therapeutic Aspects, Raven Press, New York, pp. 241–250.
McFie, J. (1960). Psychological effects of stereotaxic operations for the relief of parkinsonian symptoms.Journal of Mental Science 106: 1512–1517.
McHugh, P., and Folstein, M. (1975). Psychopathology of dementia: Implications for neuropathology. In Katzman, R. (ed.),Congenital and Acquired Cognitive Disorders, Raven Press, New York, pp. 169–180.
Meier, M., and Story, J. (1967). Selective impairment of Porteus Maze Test performance after right subthalamotomy.Neuropsychologia 5: 181–189.
Miller, E. (1985). Possible frontal impairments in Parkinson's disease: A test using a measure of verbal fluency.British Journal of Clinical Psychology 24: 211–212.
Mindham, R. (1970). Psychiatric symptoms in Parkinsonism.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 33: 188–191.
Money, J. (1976).A Standardized Road Map Test of Direction Sense. Manual. Academic Therapy Publications, San Rafael, CA.
Mortimer, J., Pirozzolo, F., Hansch, E., and Webster, D. (1982). Relationship of motor symptoms to intellectual deficits in Parkinson's disease.Neurology 32: 133–137.
Mueller, P. (1971). Parkinson's disease: motor-speech behavior in a selected group of patients.Folia Phoniatria 23: 333–346.
Nelson, H. (1976). A modified card-sorting test sensitive to frontal lobe defects.Cortex 12: 313–324.
Obler, L., and Albert, M. (1981). Language and aging: A neurobehavioral analysis. In Beasley, D., and Davis, G. (eds.),Aging: Communication Processes and Disorders, Grune & Stratton, New York, pp. 107–121.
Perret, E., Kohenof, M., and Siegfried, J. (1969). Influences de lesions thalamiques unilaterales sur les fonctions intellectuelles, mnesiques et d'apprentissage de malades parkinsoniens.Neuropsychologia 7: 79–88.
Pillon, B., Dubois, B., Lhermitte, F., and Agid, Y. (1986). Heterogeneity of cognitive impairment in progressive supranuclear palsy, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.Neurology 36: 1179–1185.
Pirozzolo, F., Hansch, E., Mortimer, J., Webster, D., and Kuskowski, M. (1982). Dementia in Parkinson's disease: A neuropsychological analysis.Brain and Cognition 1: 71–83.
Portin, R., and Rinne, U. (1983). The effect of deprenyl (selegiline) on cognition and emotion in parkinsonian patients undergoing long-term levodopa treatment.Acta Neurologica Scandinavica Supplement 135: 135–144.
Portin, R., and Rinne, U. (1986). Predictive factors for cognitive deterioration and dementia in Parkinson's disease.Advances in Neurology 45: 413–416.
Portin, R., Raininko, R., and Rinne, U. (1984). Neuropsychological disturbances and cerebral atrophy determined by computerized tomography in Parkinsonian patients with long-term Levodopa treatment.Advances in Neurology 40: 219–227.
Proctor, F., Riklan, M., Cooper, I., and Teuber, H. (1963). Somatosensory status of parkinsonian patients before and after chemothalamectomy.Neurology 13: 906–912.
Proctor, F., Riklan, M., Cooper, I., and Teuber, H. (1964). Judgment of visual and postural vertical by parkinsonian patients.Neurology 14: 287–293.
Rafal, R., Inhoff, A., Friedman, J., and Bernstein, E. (in press). Programming and execution of sequential movements in Parkinson's disease.
Rafal, R., Posner, M., Walsker, J., and Friedrich, F. (1984). Cognition and the basal ganglia.Brain 107: 1083–1094.
Ransmayr, G., Schmidhuber, A., Eiler, B., Karamat, E., Elgler-Plorer, S., Poewe, W., and Leidlmair, K. (1987). Visuoperception visuospatial and visuorotational performance in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neurology 235: 99–101.
Raskin, S., Borod, J., Wasserstein, J., Bodis-Wollner, I., Coscia, L., and Yahr, M. (1990). Visuospatial orientation in Parkinson's disease.International Journal of Neuroscience 51: 9–18.
Raskin, S., Sliwinski, M. and Borod, J. (1989). Verbal fluency in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 11: 92.
Ratcliff, G. (1979). Spatial thought, mental rotation and the right cerebral hemisphere.Neuropsychologia 17: 49–54.
Reitan, R., and Boll, T. (1971). Intellectual and cognitive functions in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 37: 364–369.
Riklan, M., and Levita, E. (1964). Psychological effects of lateralized basal ganglia lesions: A factorial study.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders 138: 233–240.
Robins, A. (1976). Depression in patients with parkinsonism.British Journal of Psychiatry 128: 141–145.
Rondot, P., de Recondo, J., Coignet, A., and Ziegler, M. (1984). Mental disorders in Parkinson's disease after treatment with L-Dopa.Advances in Neurology 40: 259–269.
Ross, E. (1985). Modulation of affect and nonverbal communication by the right hemisphere. In Mesulam, M.-M. (ed.),Principles of Behavioral Neurology, F. A., Davis, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 239–257.
Sagar, H., Cohen, N., Sullivan, E., Corkin, S., and Growdon, J. (1988). Remote memory function in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.Brain 111: 185–206.
Sagar, H., Sullivan, E., Gabrieli, J., Corkin, S., and Growdon, J. (1988). Temporal ordering and short-term memory deficits in Parkinson's disease.Brain 111: 525–539.
Sahakian, B., Morris, R., Evenden, J., Heald, A., Levy, R., Philpot, M., and Robbins, T. (1988). A comparative study of visuospatial memory and learning in Alzheimer-type dementia and Parkinson's disease.Brain 111: 695–718.
Sanes, J. (1985). Information processing deficits in Parkinson's disease during movement.Neuropsychologia 23: 381–392.
Sano, M., Stern, Y., Williams, J., Cote, L., Rosenstein, R., and Mayeux, R. (1989). Coexisting dementia and depression in Parkinson's disease.Archives of Neurology 46: 1284–1286.
Santamaria, J., Tolosa, E., and Valles, A. (1986). Parkinson's disease with depression.Neurology 36: 1130–1133.
Scott, S. Caird, M., and Williams, R. (1984). Evidence for an apparent sensory speech disorder in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 47: 840–843.
Semmes, J. (1968). Hemispheric specialization: A possible clue to mechanism.Neuropsychologia 6: 11–26.
Shallice, T., and Evans, M. (1978). The involvement of the frontal lobes in cognitive estimation.Cortex 14: 294–303.
Spicer, K., Roberts, R., and LeWitt, P. (1987). Neuropsychological performance in lateralized parkinsonism.Archives of Neurology 45: 429–432.
Starkstein, S., Leiguarda, R., Gershan, O., and Berthier, M. (1987). Neuropsychological disturbance in hemiparkinson's disease.Neurology 37: 1762–1764.
Stern, Y., and Langston, J. (1985). Intellectual changes in patients with MPTP-induced parkinsonism.Neurology 35: 1506–1509.
Stern, Y., Sano, M., and Mayeux, R. (1987). Comparisons of dementia and intellectual change in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 9: 66.
Stern, Y., Mayeux, R., Rosen, J., and Ilson, J. (1983). Perceptual motor dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: A deficit in sequential and predictive voluntary movement.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 46: 145–151.
Stroop, J. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions.Journal of Experimental Psychology 18: 643–662.
Sullivan, E., and Sagar, H. (1988). Nonverbal short-term memory impairment in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 11: 36.
Sullivan, E., Sagar, H., Gabrieli, J., Corkin, S., and Growdon, J. (1989). Different cognitive profiles on standard behavioral tests in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 11: 799–820.
Talland, G. (1962). Cognitive function in Parkinson's disease.Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 135: 196–205.
Talland, G., and Schwab, R. (1964). Performance with multiple sets in Parkinson's disease.Neuropsychologia 2: 45–53.
Taylor, A., Saint-Cyr, J., and Lang, A. (1987). Parkinson's disease: Cognitive changes in relation to treatment response.Brain 110: 35–51.
Tedroff, J., Aquilonius, S., and Hatvig, P. (1988). Monoamine re-uptake sites in the human brain evaluated in vivo by means of11C-nomifensine and PET: The effects of age and Parkinson's disease.Acta Neurological Scandinavica 77: 192–201.
Teuber, H., and Proctor, F. (1964). Some effects of basal ganglia lesions in subhuman primates and man.Neuropsychologia 2: 85–93.
Teuber, H., and Mishkin, M. (1954). Judgment of visual and postural vertical after brain injury.Journal of Psychology 38: 161–175.
Todes, C., and Lees, A. (1985). The pre-morbid personality of patients with Parkinson's disease.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 48: 97–100.
Tweedy, J., Langer, K., and McDowell, F. (1982). The effect of semantic relations on the memory deficit associated with Parkinson's disease.Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology 4: 235–247.
Villardita, C., Smirni, P., and Zappala, G. (1983). Visual Neglect in Parkinson's Disease.Archives of Neurology 40: 737–739.
Wade, J., Taylor, M., Kasprtisin, A., Rosenberg, S., and Fiducia, D. (1987).Biological Psychiatry 22: 393–395.
Warburton, J. (1967). Memory disturbance and Parkinson syndrome.British Journal of Medical Psychology 40: 169–171.
Wechsler, D. (1981).Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised, Manual, Psychological Corporation, New York.
Wechsler, D. (1987).Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised, Manual Psychological Corporation, New York.
Weingartner, H., Burns, S., Diebel, R., and LeWitt, P. (1984). Cognitive impairments in Parkinson's disease: Distinguishing between effort-demanding and automatic cognitive processes.Psychiatry Research 11: 223–235.
Wepman, J., Morency, A., and Seidle, M. (1975).Visual Discrimination Test Language Research Associates, Chicago.
Whitehouse, P. (1986). The concept of subcortical and cortical dementia: Another look.Annals of Neurology 19: 1–6.
Whitehouse, P., Hedreen, J., White, C., and Price, D. (1983). Basal forebrain neurons in the dementia of Parkinson disease.Annals of Neurology 13: 243–248.
Wilson, R., Kaszniak, A., Klawans, H., and Garron, D. (1980). High speed memory scanning in Parkinsonism.Cortex 16: 67–72.
Zung, W. (1965). A self-rating scale of depression.Archives of General Psychiatry 12: 63–70.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Raskin, S.A., Borod, J.C. & Tweedy, J. Neuropsychological aspects of Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychol Rev 1, 185–221 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01112571
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01112571