Summary
-
1.
Field measurements of hearing in the cod,Gadus morhua L., have shown that these fish are sensitive to pure tones in the frequency range from 30 to 470 Hz with greatest sensitivity in the range 60 to 310 Hz. At the most sensitive frequencies the mean thresholds varied between -18 and -26 dB/μbar (Fig. 4).
-
2.
Variation in the thresholds at most frequencies was related to changes in the level of ambient sea noise (Figs. 5–7). Only in calm sea conditions were unmasked thresholds obtained. The masking effect of noise was confirmed by raising the level artificially. The thresholds increased in proportion to the increase in noise level.
-
3.
The thresholds were largely independent of the distance of the sound source over the range from 1.7 to 50m, suggesting that cod are sensitive to acoustic pressure. However, a changeover to particle displacement sensitivity was noted at frequencies below 50 Hz when the sound source was moved to within l m of the fish (Fig. 9).
-
4.
It is concluded that the swimbladder plays an accessory role in hearing. Differences obtained in the thresholds at different sound source distances may be explained in terms of the displacement sensitivity of the otolith organs. These respond to displacements re-radiated from the swimbladder in the far-field, and to the greater incident displacement in the near-field at very low frequencies.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Békésy, G. von: A new audiometer. Acta-oto-laryng. (Stockh.)35, 411–422 (1947).
Bergeijk, W. A. van: The evolution of vertebrate hearing. In: Contributions to sensory physiology (W. D. Neff, ed.), p. 1–49. New York: Academic Press 1967.
Buerkle, U.: An audiogram of the Atlantic cod,Gadus morhua L. J. Fisheries Res. Board Canada24, 2309–2319 (1967).
Chapman, C. J.: Field studies of hearing in teleost fish. Helgoländer wiss. Meeresunters.24, 371–390 (1973, in press).
Chapman, C. J., Sand, O.: Field studies of hearing in two species of flatfish,Pleuronectes platessa (L) andLimanda limanda (L) (Family Pleuronectidae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. (1973, in press).
Cornsweet, T. N.: The staircase method in psychophysics. Amer. J. Physchol.75, 485–491 (1962).
Dixon, W. J.: The up-and-down method for small samples. J. Amer, statist. Ass. 60, 967–978 (1965).
Duncan, D. B.: Mutiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics11, 1–42 (1955).
Enger, P. S., Andersen, R.: An eletrophysiological field study of hearing in fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.22, 517–525 (1967).
Griffin, D. R.: Underwater sounds and the orientation of marine animals, a preliminary survey. Tech. Rept. No 3, Proj. Nr 162–429, ONR and Cornell Univ. (1950).
Harris, G. G.: Considerations on the physics of sound production by fishes. In: Marine bio-acoustics (W. N. Tavolga, ed.), p. 233–247. Oxford: Pergamon Press 1964.
Harris, G. G., Bergeijk, W. A. van: Evidence that the lateral-line organ responds to near field displacements of sound sources in water. J. acoust. Soc. Amer.34, 1831–1841 (1962).
Kleerekoper, H., Chagnon, E. C.: Hearing in fish, with special reference toSemotilus atromacnlatus (Mitchell). J. Pisheries Res. Board Canada11, 130–152 (1954).
Lowenstein, O.: The sense organs. 2. The acoustico-lateralis system. In: The physiology of fishes (M. E. Brown, ed.), p. 155–186. New York: Academic Press 1957.
McCartney, B. S., Stubbs, A. R.: Measurements of the acoustic target strengths of fish in dorsal aspect, including swimhladder resonance. Jnl. Sound & Vibrn15, 397–420 (1971).
Olsen, K.: A comparison of acoustic threshold in cod with recordings of ship noise. FAO Fisheries Rep. (62) 431–438 (1969).
Otis, L. S., Cerf, J. A., Thomas, G. J.: Conditioned inhibition of respiration and heart rate in the goldfish. Science (N. Y.)126, 263–264 (1957).
Parvulescu, A.: Problems of propagation and processing. In: Marine bio-acoustics (W. N. Tavolga, ed.), p. 87–100. Oxford: Pergamon Press 1964.
Parvulescu, A.: The acoustics of small tanks. In: Marine bio-acoustics, vol. 2 (W. N. Tavolga, ed.), p. 7–8. New York: Pergamon Press 1967.
Poggendorf, D.: Die absoluten Hörschwellen des Zwergwelses (Ameirus nebulosus) und Beiträge zur Physik des Weberschen Apparates des Ostariophysen. Z. vergl. Physiol.34, 222–257 (1952).
Sand, O., Hawkins, A. D.: The acoustic properties of the cod swimbladder. J. exp. Biol.58 (1973, In press).
Tavolga, W. N.: Review of marine bio-acoustics. Techn. Rept.: Navtradevcen 1212-1, pp. 100, U.S. Naval Training Device Center (1965).
Tavolga, W. N.: Sound production and detection. In: Pish physiology Vol. 5 (W. S. Hoar, D. J. Radall, eds.), p. 135–205. New York: Academic Press 1971.
Tavolga, W. N., Wodinsky, J.: Auditory capacities in fishes. Pure tone thresholds in nine species of marine teleosts. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist.126, 179–239 (1963).
Wenz, G. M.: Acoustic ambient noise in the ocean: Spectra and sources. J. acoust. Soc. Amer.34, 1936–1956 (1962).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
We would like to thank Major G. C. Braithwaite for kindly providing the Aird Mhor site for our work. We are grateful to B. B. Parrish, P. S. Enger, A. Tumarkin, C. C. Hemmings and J. J. Foster, all of whom made valuable comments on the paper, and to B. S. McCartney, A. R. Stubbs, D. N. MacLennan, S. Forbes and W. Burgess for advice and technical assistance. We are also grateful to W. Hall for his advice on statistical matters. Special thanks are due to A. D. F. Johnstone, G. R. Park, C. Robb, J. Main and other members of the Marine Laboratory diving team who took part.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chapman, C.J., Hawkins, A.D. A field study of hearing in the cod,Gadus morhua L.. J. Comp. Physiol. 85, 147–167 (1973). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00696473
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00696473